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The Development of a Rasch-Type Loneliness Scale
Open accessAbstract
This paper describes an attempt to construct a measuring instrument for loneliness that meets the cri teria of a Rasch scale. Rasch (1960, 1966) proposed a latent trait model for the unidimensional scaling of di chotomous items that does not suffer from the inade quacies of classical approaches. The resulting Rasch scale of this study, which is based on data from 1,201 employed, disabled, and jobless adults, consists of five positive and six negative items. The positive items assess feelings of belongingness, whereas the negative items apply to three separate aspects of miss ing relationships. The techniques for testing the as sumptions underlying the Rasch model are compared with their counterparts from classical test theory, and the implications for the methodology of scale con struction are discussed.
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“It is likely that studies with more comprehensive measures of loneliness (e.g., the De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale [de Jong-Gierveld & Kamphuls, 1985)] or the UCLA loneliness scale [Russell, 1996]) are better able to detect associations between loneliness and subsequent cognitive decline.”
From Longitudinal Associations Between Loneliness and Cognitive Ability in the Lothian Birth Cohort 1936 (2019) · cites this paper as de Jong-Gierveld & Kamphuls, 1985
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“factor analyses of the 20-item UCLA Loneliness Scale have revealed anywhere from two to five dimensions, with second-order factor analyses yielding a single hierarchical loneliness construct.”
From Loneliness and health in older adults: a mini-review and synthesis (2016) · cites this paper as [11]
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“Psychometrically robust self-report measures of loneliness have been developed and used extensively in research on physical health and on older people, including the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) Loneliness Scale [21] and the de Jong-Gierveld Loneliness Scale [22].”
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Chen, Y.-R. R., & Schulz, P. J. (2016) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.4596 · Cited by 874
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“That is, loneliness can reflect the subjectively experienced lack of important social resources and was therefore measured by an 11-item loneliness scale ( DeJong-Gierveld & Kamphuis, 1985 ).”
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Causal beliefs, social participation, and loneliness among older adults: A longitudinal study
Newall, N. E., Chipperfield, J. G., Clifton, R. A., Perry, R. P., Swift, A. U., & Ruthig, J. C. (2009) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407509106718 · Cited by 273
Jylhä, M. K. (2004) · Canadian Journal on Aging / La Revue canadienne du vieillissement · doi:10.1353/cja.2004.0023 · Cited by 254
“Cross-cultural differences in loneliness have also been examined by Martin, Hagberg, and Poon (1997); van Tilburg, de Jong Gierveld, Lecchini, and Marsiglia (1998); and de Jong Gierveld and van Tilburg (1999).”
BackgroundInfluentialIntolerance of Uncertainty and Loneliness in Older Adults During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Parlapani, E., Holeva, V., Nikopoulou, V. A., Sereslis, K., Athanasiadou, M., Godosidis, A., Stephanou, T., & Diakogiannis, I. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00842 · Cited by 274
“Overall Male Female x2 df p Vcramer N % N % N % Depressive symptoms Mild 18 17.5 10 25 8 12.9 4.604 3 .203 .203 Moderate 45 43.7 18 45 27 43.5 Moderately severe 31 30.1 11 27.5 20 32.3 Severe 8 7.8 1 2.5 7 11.3 Total 102 99.1 40 100 62 100 Anxiety symptoms Mild 3 2.9 2 5.9 1 1.8 3.91 3 .270 .270 Moderate 28 28.2 11 32…”
MethodInfluentialFrison, E., & Eggermont, S. (2020) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/0093650215617506 · Cited by 239
“The 11-item Loneliness Scale (de Jong-Gierveld & Kamphuls, 1985) was used to examine the adolescents’ level of loneliness.”
MethodGoll, J. C., Charlesworth, G. M., Scior, K., & Stott, J. C. H. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0116664 · Cited by 266
“Nevertheless, all participants were classified as lonely, over half surpassed the criterion for “severe loneliness” [42], and a satisfactory gender mix was obtained (5 males, 10 females).”
Loneliness in psychosis: a systematic review
Lim, M. H., Gleeson, J., Álvarez‐Jiménez, M., & Penn, D. L. (2018) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-018-1482-5 · Cited by 252
“[33, 34] administered the brief six-item version of the De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale and reported a mean score of 17.13 (SD = 5.14) out of 30.”
MethodInfluentialUniversity students with autism: the social and academic experiences of university in the UK
Gurbuz, E., Hanley, M., & Riby, D. M. (2019) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3741-4 · Cited by 232
Fokkema, T., & Knipscheer, K. (2007) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607860701366129 · Cited by 230
“Degree of loneliness was measured with the aid of the loneliness scale developed by de Jong Gierveld and Kamphuis (1985).”
MethodInfluentialDeckx, L., van den Akker, M., & Buntinx, F. (2014) · European Journal of Oncology Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.ejon.2014.05.002 · Cited by 206
“The Loneliness Scale of De Jong-Gierveld (De Jong Gierveld et al., 2006; De Jong-Gierveld and Kamphuis, 1985) was used in two studies (Boer et al., 1998; Deckx et al., 2013).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSocial functioning in patients with depressive and anxiety disorders
Saris, I. M. J., Aghajani, M., van der Werff, S. J. A., van der Wee, N. J. A., & Penninx, B. W. J. H. (2017) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.12774 · Cited by 218
“The de Jong Gierveld loneliness scale (30) describes feelings of loneliness with 11 questions.”
BackgroundReducing social isolation and loneliness in older people: a systematic review protocol
Landeiro, F., Barrows, P., Musson, E. N., Gray, A. M., & Leal, J. (2017) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-013778 · Cited by 246
Buunk, B. P., & Schaufeli, W. B. (1999) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/14792779943000080 · Cited by 220
van Baarsen, B., Snijders, T. A. B., Smit, J. H., & van Duijn, M. A. J. (2001) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/00131640121971103 · Cited by 217
“Earlier findings (De Jong-Gierveld & Kamphuis, 1985) suggesting that the 11-item Loneliness Scale conforms to a Rasch scale were not confirmed.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialGierveld, J. D. J., Dykstra, P. A., & Schenk, N. (2012) · Demographic Research · doi:10.4054/demres.2012.27.7 · Cited by 227
Newall, N. E. G., & Menec, V. H. (2019) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407517749045 · Cited by 208
Nachtegaal, J., Smit, J. H., Smits, C., Bezemer, P. D., van Beek, J. H. M., Festen, J. Μ., & Kramer, S. E. (2009) · Ear and Hearing · doi:10.1097/aud.0b013e31819c6e01 · Cited by 202
“A score from 9 or 10 indicated severe loneliness, whereas a summed score of 11 indicated very severe loneliness (Van Tilburg & De Jong Gierveld 1999). c.”
BackgroundLoneliness of Older Immigrant Groups in Canada: Effects of Ethnic-Cultural Background
Gierveld, J. D. J., van der Pas, S., & Keating, N. C. (2015) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology · doi:10.1007/s10823-015-9265-x · Cited by 214
“Moreover, the findings of a study in Canada by Penning et al. (2014) supported the utility of the De Jong Gierveld scale for research involving middle-aged and older adults.”
BackgroundInfluentialUse of Direct Versus Indirect Approaches to Measure Loneliness in Later Life
Shiovitz-Ezra, S., & Ayalon, L. (2012) · Research on Aging · doi:10.1177/0164027511423258 · Cited by 201
“The latter was also found with regard to emotional and social loneliness on multivariate analyses using the 11-item De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale among married men and women (de Jong Gierveld, van Groenou, Hoogendoorn, & Smith, 2009).”
MethodInfluentialSocial Network, Social Support, and Loneliness in Older Persons with Different Chronic Diseases
Penninx, B. W. J. H., van Tilburg, T. G., Kriegsman, D. M. W., Boeke, A. J. P., Deeg, D. J. H., & van Eijk, J. T. M. (1999) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/089826439901100202 · Cited by 199
“In C.P.M. Knipscheer, J. de Jong Gierveld, T. G. van Tilburg & P. A. Dijkstra (Eds.)”
MethodInfluentialBoschloo, L., Vogelzangs, N., Smit, J. H., van den Brink, W., Veltman, D. J., Beekman, A. T. F., & Penninx, B. W. J. H. (2011) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2010.12.014 · Cited by 227
Changes in and factors related to loneliness in older men. The Zutphen Elderly Study
Tijhuis, M. (1999) · Age and Ageing · doi:10.1093/ageing/28.5.491 · Cited by 200
“Feelings of loneliness were measured by the De Jong-Gierveld Loneliness Scale, developed for use in survey research [18].”
MethodMa, R., Mann, F., Wang, J., Lloyd‐Evans, B., Terhune, J., Al-Shihabi, A., & Johnson, S. (2019) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-019-01800-z · Cited by 208
Prevalence and Risk Factors of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Older Adults
van Zelst, W. H., de Beurs, E., Beekman, A. T. F., Deeg, D. J. H., & van Dyck, R. (2003) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000073030 · Cited by 197
Pronk, M., Deeg, D. J. H., Smits, C., van Tilburg, T. G., Kuik, D. J., Festen, J. Μ., & Kramer, S. E. (2011) · International Journal of Audiology · doi:10.3109/14992027.2011.599871 · Cited by 192
Consensus statement: loneliness in older adults, the 21st century social determinant of health?
PROHASKA, T. R., Burholt, V., Burns, A., Golden, J., Hawkley, L. C., LAWLOR, B. A., Leavey, G., Lubben, J., O’Sullivan, R., Perissinotto, C. M., et al. (2020) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-034967 · Cited by 211
Social, Emotional, and Existential Loneliness: A Test of the Multidimensional Concept
van Tilburg, T. G. (2020) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gnaa082 · Cited by 230
Mund, M., Maes, M., Drewke, P. M., Gutzeit, A., Jaki, I., & Qualter, P. (2023) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/10731911221077227 · Cited by 192
“…Freuding, et al., 2020; Pinquart & Sörensen, 2001): the Rasch-Type Loneliness Scale (RTLS) and its facets emotional and social loneliness (de Jong Gierveld & Kamphuis, 1985; de Jong Gierveld & van Tilburg, 2006), the University of California Los Angeles Loneliness Scale (UCLA-LS) in its full (D.…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSlegers, K., van Boxtel, M. P. J., & Jolles, J. (2008) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/63.3.p176 · Cited by 188
“We measured social well-being by using the loneliness questionnaire (De Jong-Gierveld & Kamphuis, 1986).”
MethodMobile Phone Addiction, Phubbing, and Depression Among Men and Women: A Moderated Mediation Analysis
Ivanova, A., Gorbaniuk, O., Błachnio, A., Przepiórka, A., Mraka, N., Polishchuk, V., & Gorbaniuk, J. (2020) · Psychiatric Quarterly · doi:10.1007/s11126-020-09723-8 · Cited by 218
Franssen, T., Stijnen, M., Hamers, F., & Schneider, F. (2020) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-020-09208-0 · Cited by 180
“The scale was recoded as a dichotomous variable: no loneliness = 0 (scores 0–2) and moderate/severe loneliness = 1 (scores 3–11) [43].”
MethodInfluentialMeasuring loneliness in later life: a comparison of differing measures
Victor, C., Grenade, L., & Boldy, D. (2005) · Reviews in Clinical Gerontology · doi:10.1017/s0959259805001723 · Cited by 179
Metadata
- Authors
- de Jong-Gierveld, J., & Kamphuls, F.
- Affiliations
- Free University, Amsterdam
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
- Venue
- Applied Psychological Measurement
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 1985-09
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 289-299
- ISSN
- 0146-6216 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-3497
- OpenAlex
- W1928146223
- Cited by
- 1,291
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 84 · 2025: 96 · 2024: 94 · 2023: 108 · 2022: 119 · 2021: 91 · 2020: 73 · 2019: 62 · 2018: 41 · 2017: 54 · 2016: 51 · 2015: 56 · 2014: 34 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 29
- FWCI
- 1.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- purl.umn.edu
- Locations
- Applied Psychological Measurement (publishedVersion)
- University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- loneliness, Rasch model, scale development, latent trait models, dichotomous items, sense of belonging, classical test theory comparison
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