Sequential Priming Measures of Implicit Social Cognition: A Meta-Analysis of Associations With Behavior and Explicit Attitudes
Abstract
In a comprehensive meta-analysis of 167 studies, the authors found that sequential priming tasks were significantly associated with behavioral measures (r = .28) and with explicit attitude measures (r = .20). Priming tasks continued to predict behavior after controlling for the effects of explicit attitudes. These results generalized across a variety of study domains and methodological variations. Within-study moderator analyses revealed that priming tasks have good specificity, only predicting behavior and explicit measures under theoretically expected conditions. Together, these results indicate that sequential priming-one of the earliest methods of investigating implicit social cognition--continues to be a valid tool for the psychological scientist.
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Hahn et al. (2014) found that participants showed high accuracy in predicting their IAT scores although self-reported evaluations on direct measures showed the same small correlations with IAT scores found in prior research.
“participants showed high accuracy in predicting their IAT scores although self-reported evaluations on direct measures showed the same small correlations with IAT scores found in prior research (for meta-analyses, see Cameron et al. 2012, Hofmann et al. 2005).”
From Unawareness of Attitudes, Their Environmental Causes, and Their Behavioral Effects (2025) · cites this paper as Cameron et al. 2012
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“9 The extent to which these measures predict real-world behavior has been addressed (and debated) by others (Cameron et al. 2012; Greenwald et al. 2009; Oswald et al. 2013).”
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Cooley, E., & Payne, B. K. (2016) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167216675331 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“This measure is a valid and reliable measure of implicit bias that effectively predicts behavior (Cameron et al., 2012).”
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Self-citationImplicit Bias ≠ Bias on Implicit Measures
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“Although average correlations between BIM and discriminatory behavior vary across metaanalyses (Cameron et al., 2012; Greenwald et al., 2009; Kurdi et al., 2019; Oswald et al., 2013), the average correlations obtained in these meta-analyses tend to be relatively small overall.”
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Measuring Implicit Intergroup Biases
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“Measuring attitudes is generally difficult, and no method is perfect (Cameron, Brown-Iannuzzi, and Payne 2012; Glasman and Albarracín 2006).”
MethodHow Do Indifferent Voters Decide? The Political Importance of Implicit Attitudes
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Beyond Persons and Situations: An Interactionist Approach to Understanding Implicit Bias
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“…ignoring the aforementioned moderators (e.g., type of behavior, cognitive resources, individual differences in thinking styles), the to-be-expected outcome is a weak positive relation, as found in extant meta-analyses (e.g., Cameron et al., 2012; Greenwald et al., 2009; Oswald et al., 2013).”
BackgroundResultImplicit moral evaluations: A multinomial modeling approach.
Cameron, C. D., Payne, B. K., Sinnott-Armstrong, W., Scheffer, J. A., & Inzlicht, M. (2017) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2016.10.013 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Self-citationPrevention of Intention Invention in the Affect Misattribution Procedure
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The Reliability of Child-Friendly Race-Attitude Implicit Association Tests
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“Because this approach may be limited in its ability to detect systematic error (e.g., learning effects, fatigue), we include Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICCs) as an additional indicator of test stability (Bedard et al., 2000; Weir, 2005).”
BackgroundMethodIs discrimination widespread? Testing assumptions about bias on a university campus.
Campbell, M. R., & Brauer, M. (2020) · Journal of experimental psychology. General · doi:10.31234/osf.io/evp8b · Cited by 30
The effects of conflict on risk perception and travelling intention of young tourists
Desivilya, H., Teitler-Regev, S., & Shahrabani, S. (2015) · doi:10.1108/emjb-08-2014-0025 · Cited by 30
The Influence of the Presentation of Camera Surveillance on Cheating and Pro-Social Behavior
Jansen, A., Giebels, E., Rompay, T. V. V., & Junger, M. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01937 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“One reason for this is that these psychological processes may not necessarily take place on a conscious level and are therefore difficult to capture with an explicit questionnaire (e.g., priming; Cameron et al., 2012).”
BackgroundImplicit Weight Bias in Children Age 9 to 11 Years
Skinner, A., Payne, K., Perrin, A. J., Panter, A., Howard, J., Bardone-Cone, A. M., Bulik, C., Steiner, M. J., & Perrin, E. M. (2017) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2016-3936 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Implicit Interpersonal Attraction in Small Groups
Krause, S., Back, M., Egloff, B., & Schmukle, S. (2014) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550613517723 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
What can experimental studies of bias tell us about real-world group disparities?
Cesario, J. (2021) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x21000017 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Chang, Y., & Ko, Y. (2016) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.20909 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Implicit measures of attitudes and political voting behavior
Friese, M., Smith, C., Koever, M., & Bluemke, M. (2016) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12246 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Lee, K., & Yen, C.-L. A. (2022) · Cornell Hospitality Quarterly · doi:10.1177/19389655221102381 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Based on previous studies (Cameron et al., 2012), this study defines explicit attitudes as controlled evaluations toward service robots.”
MethodResultImplicit Attitudes in Media Psychology
Payne, B. K., & Cin, S. D. (2015) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2015.1011341 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationFrom non-conscious processing to conscious events: a minimalist approach
Sklar, A. Y., Kardosh, R., & Hassin, R. R. (2021) · Neuroscience of Consciousness · doi:10.1093/nc/niab026 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“The simple positive thought SUN is more likely to be followed by a positive thought such as PUPPY than by a negative thought such as SNAKE (e.g. Fazio et al. 1986; Bargh et al. 1992; Cameron et al. 2012).”
Röhner, J., & Lai, C. (2020) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167220974489 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Several meta-analyses examining hundreds of research reports have found robust and reliable evidence for relationships between implicit measures and behavior (Cameron et al., 2012; Forscher et al., 2019; Greenwald et al., 2009; Kurdi et al., 2019; Oswald et al., 2013).”
BackgroundVuletich, H. A., Kurtz-Costes, B., Cooley, E., & Payne, B. K. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0238230 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citationGawronski, B., & Hahn, A. (2018) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780429452925-2 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“A common question about implicit measures is whether they predict behavior, with several independent meta-analyses suggesting different conclusions (e.g., Cameron et al., 2012; Greenwald, Poehlman, Uhlmann, & Banaji, 2009; Oswald, Mitchell, Blanton, Jaccard, & Tetlock, 2013).”
ResultNathan, M., Ormond, K., Dial, C. M., Gamma, A., & Lunn, M. (2019) · Journal of Genetic Counseling · doi:10.1007/s10897-018-0295-8 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
The effect of the validity of co‐occurrence on automatic and deliberate evaluations
Moran, T., Bar-Anan, Y., & Nosek, B. A. (2017) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2266 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Kurdi, B., & Banaji, M. (2017) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2017.1373555 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“…domain, r D .18 (k D 15) for gender and sexual orientation, and r D .20 (k D 15) in other intergroup contexts (Greenwald et al., 2009a), r D .15 (k D 36) for race and r D .12 (k D 14) for ethnicity (Oswald et al., 2013), and r D .28 (k D 30) across all intergroup contexts (Cameron et al., 2012).”
Li, H., Huang, L., Zhang, Y., & Ni, S. (2016) · Safety Science · doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2016.06.006 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Regional Intergroup BiasPreprint
Calanchini, J., Hehman, E., Ebert, T., Wilson;Wilson, L., Simon, D., & Esposito, E. E. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/gh9vj · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Controlling the “uncontrollable”: Faking effects on the affect misattribution procedure
Teige-Mocigemba, S., Penzl, B., Becker, M., Henn, L., & Klauer, K. C. (2016) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2015.1070793 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“However, at the same time, the inconspicuous findings for the CG in Experiment 2 and the promising results of several other AMP experiments published so far (for a meta-analysis, see Cameron et al., 2012) suggest that in a typical research setting, participants are not particularly motivated to bias their results (for…”
ResultRichard, A., Meule, A., Friese, M., & Blechert, J. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01591 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“…explicit measures may show converging results when predicting behavior, the predictive power of implicit and explicit measures can also diverge under certain conditions (e.g., those that foster the impact of automatic processes on behavior determination; Friese et al., 2009; Cameron et al., 2012).”
BackgroundHermann, C. A., & Nunes, K. (2016) · Sexual abuse. A Journal of Research and Treatment · doi:10.1177/1079063216682952 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
- Authors
- Cameron, C. D., Brown-Iannuzzi, J. L., & Payne, B. K.
- Affiliations
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- Venue
- Personality and Social Psychology Review
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2012-04-05
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 330-350
- ISSN
- 1088-8683 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-7957
- OpenAlex
- W2118525092
- Cited by
- 352
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 27 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 27 · 2017: 26 · 2016: 35 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 25 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 63.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Personality and Social Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Psychology of Social Influence
- Keywords
- sequential priming, implicit social cognition, implicit attitudes, explicit attitudes, behavior prediction, moderator analysis
- MeSH terms
- Attitude, Cognition, Humans, Models, Psychological, Social Behavior, Repetition Priming
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