Evidence for racial prejudice at the implicit level and its relationship with questionnaire measures.
Abstract
The content of spontaneously activated racial stereotypes among White Americans and the relation of this to more explicit measures of stereotyping and prejudice were investigated. Using a semantic priming paradigm, a prime was presented outside of conscious awareness (BLACK or WHITE), followed by a target stimulus requiring a word-nonword decision. The target stimuli included attributes that varied in valence and stereotypicality for Whites and African Americans. Results showed reliable stereotyping and prejudice effects: Black primes resulted in substantially stronger facilitation to negative than positive stereotypic attributes, whereas White primes facilitated positive more than negative stereotypic traits. The magnitude of this implicit prejudice effect correlated reliably with participants' scores on explicit racial attitude measures, indicating that people's spontaneous stereotypic associations are consistent with their more controlled responses.
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Whites tend to have unconscious stereotypes of Whites as intelligent, successful, and educated, and of Blacks as aggressive, impulsive, and lazy.
“Whites tend to have unconscious stereotypes of Whites as intelligent, successful, and educated, and of Blacks as aggressive, impulsive, and lazy,40”
From Reducing Racial Bias Among Health Care Providers: Lessons from Social-Cognitive Psychology (2007) · cites this paper as [40]
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What (and Why) is Positive Psychology?
Gable, S. L., & Haidt, J. (2005) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.103 · Cited by 1,755 · see citing works
“Researchers in social psychology have conducted groundbreaking studies on the existence of implicit prejudice and negative outcomes associated with low selfesteem (e.g., Josephs, Bosson, & Jacobs, 2003; Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park, 1997 ).”
BackgroundHofmann, W., Gawronski, B., Gschwendner, T., Le, H., & Schmitt, M. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167205275613 · Cited by 1,642 · see citing works
“Our assumption is that the present findings can be generalized to other kinds of implicit measures (e.g., Fazio et al., Hofmann et al. / IAT META-ANALYSIS 1381 1995; Wittenbrink et al., 1997 ).”
BackgroundResultAn inkblot for attitudes: Affect misattribution as implicit measurement.
Payne, B. K., Cheng, C. M., Govorun, O., & Stewart, B. D. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.3.277 · Cited by 1,371 · see citing works
“By limiting monitoring and control, implicit measures can be extremely useful for studying socially sensitive attitudes such as prejudice (Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998; Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park, 1997).”
BackgroundSeeing Black: Race, Crime, and Visual Processing.
Eberhardt, J. L., Goff, P. A., Purdie, V. J., & Davies, P. G. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.6.876 · Cited by 1,208 · see citing works
“... Chen & Bargh, 1997; Dovidio, Evans, & Tyler, 1986; Dovidio, Kawakami, Johnson, Johnson, & Howard, 1997; Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995; Gaertner & McLaughlin, 1983; Gilbert & Hixon, 1991; Kawakami, Dion, & Dovidio, 1998; Lepore & Brown, 1997; Macrae, Bodenhausen, & Milne, 1995; Macrae, Bodenhausen, Milne…”
The police officer's dilemma: Using ethnicity to disambiguate potentially threatening individuals.
Correll, J., Park, B., Judd, C. M., & Wittenbrink, B. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1314 · Cited by 1,175 · see citing works
“First, participants completed the Modern Racism Scale (MRS; McConahay, Hardee, & Batts, 1981), the Discrimination (DIS) and Diversity Scales (DIV) (both from Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park, 1997 ), all of which are designed to measure prejudice against African Americans, as well as the Motivation to Control Prejudiced Resp…”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe Malleability of Automatic Stereotypes and Prejudice
Blair, I. V. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0603_8 · Cited by 1,152 · see citing works
The Single Category Implicit Association Test as a measure of implicit social cognition.
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A justification-suppression model of the expression and experience of prejudice.
Crandall, C. S., & Eshleman, A. K. (2003) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.3.414 · Cited by 1,090 · see citing works
“Indirect measures are essential for capturing implicit cognitions that may be able to reveal suppressed prejudice and stereotypical beliefs (see Banaji & Greenwald, 1994; Greenwald et al., 1998; Kawakami, Dion, & Dovidio, 1998; Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park, 1997).”
BackgroundMcConnell, A. R., & Leibold, J. M. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.2000.1470 · Cited by 1,001 · see citing works
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“The results were consistent with previous research measuring race bias with evaluative priming (Dovidio et al., 1986; Fazio et al., 1995; Wittenbrink et al., 1997): Fewer errors were made for the white 1 good (black 1 bad) trials ( M 5 76% correct) than the white 1 bad (black 1 good) trials ( M 5 71% correct), indicat…”
ResultIndividual Differences in Working Memory Capacity and Dual-Process Theories of the Mind.
Barrett, L. F., Tugade, M. M., & Engle, R. W. (2004) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.4.553 · Cited by 913 · see citing works
“For example, egalitarian individuals higher in WMC may not experience stereotype activation automatically (e.g., Devine, 1989; Wittenbrink et al., 1997), whereas egalitarian individuals lower in WMC may experience automatic activation of their stereotyped categories because they 562 FELDMAN BARRETT, TUGADE, AND ENGLE”
BackgroundField Experiments on Discrimination
Bertrand, M., & Duflo, E. (2016) · Handbook of economic field experiments · doi:10.1016/bs.hefe.2016.08.004 · Cited by 924 · see citing works
Devos, T., & Banaji, M. R. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.3.447 · Cited by 790 · see citing works
Toward a histology of social behavior: Judgmental accuracy from thin slices of the behavioral stream
Ambady, N., Bernieri, F. J., & Richeson, J. A. (2000) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(00)80006-4 · Cited by 716 · see citing works
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“kowitz et al., 2000; Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park, 1997 ).”
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On the automatic activation of associated evaluations: An overview
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“For example, traditional lexical decision tasks have proven sensitive to affective priming (e.g., Hill & Kemp-Wheeler, 1989; Kemp-Wheeler & Hill, 1992; Wittenbrink et al., 1997; but, see Klinger, Burton, & Pitts, 2000).”
BackgroundMethodImplicit and Explicit Attitudes Toward Female Authority
Rudman, L. A., & Kilianski, S. E. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167200263001 · Cited by 586 · see citing works
Implicit social cognition: from measures to mechanisms
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Why can't we just get along? Interpersonal biases and interracial distrust.
Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. E., Kawakami, K., & Hodson, G. (2002) · Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/1099-9809.8.2.88 · Cited by 593 · see citing works
“For example, we have found, using subliminally presented schematic faces of Blacks and Whites as primes, that White participants have faster response times to negative traits after Black than White primes and faster response times to positive traits after White than Black primes (Dovidio, Kawakami, Johnson, Johnson, &…”
MethodKunda, Z., & Spencer, S. J. (2003) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.4.522 · Cited by 553 · see citing works
“…and egalitarian individuals and examining their reactions (Devine, 1989; Dovidio et al., 1997; Dunton & Fazio, 1997; Fazio et al., 1995; Kawakami et al., 1998; Lepore & Brown, 1997; Moskowitz et al., 1999; Plant & Devine, 1998; von Hippel, Sekaquaptewa, & Vargas, 1997; Wittenbrink et al., 1997).”
BackgroundConrey, F. R., Sherman, J. W., Gawronski, B., Hugenberg, K., & Groom, C. J. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.469 · Cited by 539 · see citing works
Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2004) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(04)36001-6 · Cited by 650 · see citing works
Reducing Racial Bias Among Health Care Providers: Lessons from Social-Cognitive Psychology
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Implicit Attitudes towards Homosexuality: Reliability, Validity, and Controllability of the IAT
Banse, R., Seise, J., & Zerbes, N. (2001) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1026//0949-3946.48.2.145 · Cited by 465 · see citing works
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“In addition , Whites automatically activate stereotypes of Whites as intelligent, successful, and educated and of Blacks as aggressive, impulsive, and lazy (Blair, 2001; Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park, 1997).”
BackgroundImplicit Measures in Social and Personality Psychology
Gawronski, B., & Houwer, J. D. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511996481.016 · Cited by 459 · see citing works
Folk conceptions of fairness and unfairness
Lupfer, M. B., Weeks, K. P., Doan, K. A., & Houston, D. A. (2000) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-0992(200005/06)30:3 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Implicit Ingroup Favoritism, Outgroup Favoritism, and Their Behavioral Manifestations
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The Associative–Propositional Evaluation Model
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Easier done than undone: Asymmetry in the malleability of implicit preferences.
Gregg, A. P., Seibt, B., & Banaji, M. R. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.1.1 · Cited by 419 · see citing works
“…& Hixon, 1991; Macrae, Bodenhausen , Milne, Thorn, & Castelli, 1997) and motivation (Devine, Plant, Amodio, Harmon-Jones, & Vance, 2002; Spencer, Fein, Wolfe, Fong, & Dunn, 1998; Lepore & Brown, 1997; Sinclair & Kunda, 1999; Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park, 1997) play moderating and mediating roles.”
Perspectives on Racial Phenotypicality Bias
Maddox, K. B. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0804_4 · Cited by 417 · see citing works
“This represents a failure to replicate a number of investigations that have demonstrated that automatic responses to facial stimuli can in fact reflect category-based processing through manipulations of processing goals (e.g., Macrae, Bodenhausen, Milne, Thorn, & Castelli, 1997; Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park, 1997, 2001 ).”
BackgroundA Duplex Theory of Hate: Development and Application to Terrorism, Massacres, and Genocide
Sternberg, R. J. (2003) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.7.3.299 · Cited by 442 · see citing works
A Multitrait-Multimethod Validation of the Implicit Association Test
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Are “implicit” attitudes unconscious?
Gawronski, B., Hofmann, W., & Wilbur, C. J. (2006) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2005.11.007 · Cited by 401 · see citing works
Automatic Preference for White Americans: Eliminating the Familiarity Explanation
Dasgupta, N., McGhee, D. E., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2000) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.1999.1418 · Cited by 389 · see citing works
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Why do interracial interactions impair executive function? A resource depletion account.
Richeson, J. A., & Trawalter, S. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.6.934 · Cited by 362 · see citing works
“Previous research has found, for instance, that low-prejudice White individuals are less likely to activate negative stereotypes about Blacks, compared with high-prejudice White individuals (Lepore & Brown, 1997; Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park, 1997 ), and that the source of motivations to respond without prejudice predict…”
ResultAmbiguity in Social Categorization
Hugenberg, K., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2004) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00680.x · Cited by 362 · see citing works
The role of Afrocentric features in person perception: Judging by features and categories.
Blair, I. V., Judd, C. M., Sadler, M. S., & Jenkins, C. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.1.5 · Cited by 368 · see citing works
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“The existing literature (including our own findings), however, support, to a large extent, that it is a valid, nonreactive indicator of racial prejudice (e.g., Lambert, Cronen, Chasten, & Lickel, 1996; Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park, 1997 ).”
ResultPerceived consensus influences intergroup behavior and stereotype accessibility.
Sechrist, G. B., & Stangor, C. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.4.645 · Cited by 359 · see citing works
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Galinsky, A. D., & Ku, G. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167203262802 · Cited by 332 · see citing works
“By prejudice, we mean a negative attitude toward or evaluation of a group (Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995; Judd & Park, 1993; Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park, 1997, 2001; Wolsko, Park,”
Payne, B. K. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.488 · Cited by 311 · see citing works
“Commonly used implicit tasks include implicit association tests (IATs; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998), priming tasks (Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995; Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park, 1997 ) and word completions (Gilbert & Hixon, 1991).”
MethodWhy do providers contribute to disparities and what can be done about it?
Burgess, D. J., Fu, S. S., & Ryn, M. (2004) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1111/j.1525-1497.2004.30227.x · Cited by 310 · see citing works
Minority Members' Implicit Attitudes: Automatic Ingroup Bias As A Function Of Group Status
Rudman, L. A., Feinberg, J. M., & Fairchild, K. (2002) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.20.4.294.19908 · Cited by 297 · see citing works
“found when group tokens are asymmetrically familiar, as well as when they are matched on familiarity (see also Ashburn–Nardo, Voils, & Monteith, 2001). Another issue concerns whether mode changes across group tokens influence the IAT. First, we consider the use of names versus pictures. Using the IAT website,14 Nosek,…”
MethodImplicit and Explicit Ethnocentrism: Revisiting the Ideologies of Prejudice
Cunningham, W. A., Nezlek, J. B., & Banaji, M. R. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204264654 · Cited by 288 · see citing works
“…between implicit and explicit measures (Banaji & Hardin, 1996; Blair & Banaji, 1996; Devine, 1989), more recent studies have found correlations between these types of measures (Cunningham et al., 2001; Gawronski, 2002; Kawakami et al., 1998; Lepore & Brown, 1997; Wittenbrink et al., 1997).”
BackgroundRudman, L. A., Greenwald, A. G., Mellott, D. S., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1999) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.1999.17.4.437 · Cited by 280 · see citing works
The Conceptualization and Measurement of Symbolic Racism
Tarman, C., & Sears, D. O. (2005) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2508.2005.00337.x · Cited by 284 · see citing works
What Do Implicit Measures Tell Us?: Scrutinizing the Validity of Three Common Assumptions
Gawronski, B., LeBel, E. P., & Peters, K. R. (2007) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00036.x · Cited by 296 · see citing works
“…apply to all kinds of measures that include a response interference component (e.g., De Houwer, 2003a; Fazio et al., 1995; Greenwald et al., 1998, Nosek & Banaji, 2001), they may not be applicable to tasks that are based on different mechanisms (e.g., Payne et al., 2005; Wittenbrink et al., 1997).”
BackgroundRace in the Courtroom: Perceptions of Guilt and Dispositional Attributions
Sommers, S. R., & Ellsworth, P. C. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167200263005 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
Nonconscious influences of religion on prosociality: a priming study
Pichon, I., Boccato, G., & Saroglou, V. (2007) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.416 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
“The procedure for the lexical decision task was adapted from Wittenbrink, Judd, and Park (1997, 2001).”
MethodElectrophysiological Evidence of Implicit and Explicit Categorization Processes
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Automatic Activation of Stereotypes: The Role of Self-Image Threat
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Suppression as a Stereotype Control Strategy
Monteith, M. J., Sherman, J. W., & Devine, P. G. (1998) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0201_4 · Cited by 261 · see citing works
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“Following the procedure of Wittenbrink et al. (1997), participants first identified the ethnic group membership (Black, White, or Asian) of individuals on the basis of first names.”
The Automaticity of Race and Afrocentric Facial Features in Social Judgments.
Blair, I. V., Judd, C. M., & Fallman, J. L. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.6.763 · Cited by 243 · see citing works
Self-citationPutting the brakes on prejudice: On the development and operation of cues for control.
Monteith, M. J., Ashburn‐Nardo, L., Voils, C. I., & Czopp, A. M. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.5.1029 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Barden, J., Maddux, W. W., Petty, R. E., & Brewer, M. B. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.1.5 · Cited by 240 · see citing works
“Put another way, the presence of an evaluative bias favoring Blacks relative to Asians on a basketball court and a bias favoring Asians relative to Blacks in a classroom shows that race cues had an impact on target evaluations.”
BackgroundInfluentialTwo Roads to Positive Regard: Implicit and Explicit Self-Evaluation and Culture
Hetts, J. J., Sakuma, M., & Pelham, B. W. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.1999.1391 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Pride and Prejudice: Identity Management in English People's Talk about `this Country'
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The influence of stereotypes on decisions to shoot
Correll, J., Park, B., Judd, C. M., & Wittenbrink, B. (2007) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.450 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
“…include a number of other concepts such as poverty and athleticism, danger figures prominently in the Black stereotype (Devine & Elliot, 1995; Wittenbrink et al., 1997), and perceptions of danger bear directly on the decision task in these studies, which involves the detection of a hostile…”
BackgroundSelf-citationPriming Christian Religious Concepts Increases Racial Prejudice
Johnson, M. K., Rowatt, W., & LaBouff, J. P. (2010) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550609357246 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Implicit and Explicit Attitudes Toward Cigarette Smoking: the Effects of Context and Motivation
Sherman, S. J., Rose, J. S., Koch, K., Presson, C. C., & Chassin, L. (2003) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.22.1.13.22766 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
“However, other research has reported stronger relations between implicit and explicit measures (Nosek et al., 2002b; Wittenbrink et al., 1997).”
BackgroundBeilock, S. L., Jellison, W. A., Rydell, R. J., McConnell, A. R., & Carr, T. H. (2006) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167206288489 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Implicit and Explicit Attitudes: Examination of the Relationship between Measures of Intergroup Bias
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Beach, K. R. (2003) · doi:10.1002/9780470693421.ch9 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
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Cherubino, P., Martinez-Levy, A. C., Caratù, M., Cartocci, G., di Flumeri, G., Modica, E., Rossi, D., Mancini, M., & Trettel, A. (2019) · Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience · doi:10.1155/2019/1976847 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
“)ere are different examples of such methods based on reaction time (RT), for instance, the implicit association test (IAT [149]), the extrinsic affective Simon task (EAST [150]), and the implicit relational assessment procedure (IRAP [151]) as well as various lexical decision tasks where primes and targets are sequent…”
MethodExplicit and implicit attitude toward an emerging food technology: The case of cultured meat.
Bekker, G. A., Fischer, A., Tobi, H., & van Trijp, H. V. (2017) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2016.10.002 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Priorities in social categories
Kinzler, K. D., Shutts, K., & Correll, J. (2010) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.739 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
What moderates implicit—explicit consistency?
Hofmann, W., Gschwendner, T., Nosek, B. A., & Schmitt, M. (2005) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463280500443228 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Evaluation of intergroup dialogue: A review of the empirical literature
Dessel, A. B., & Rogge, M. E. (2008) · Conflict Resolution Quarterly · doi:10.1002/crq.230 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
“Use of implicit attitude measures may address these limitations (Olson and Fazio, 2006; Wittenbrink, Judd, and Park, 1997).”
BackgroundBest research practices for using the Implicit Association Test
Greenwald, A. G., Brendl, M., Cai, H., Cvencek, D., Dovidio, J. F., Friese, M., Hahn, A., Hehman, E., Hofmann, W., Hughes, S., et al. (2022) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-021-01624-3 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
“…studies are sometimes intercepted on the path to publication by reviewers or editors who will note that the trait contrast was confounded with a valence contrast and the IAT might therefore have provided an attitude measure rather than the desired stereotype measure (cf. Wittenbrink et al., 1997).”
BackgroundImplicit Statistical Learning: A Tale of Two Literatures
Christiansen, M. H. (2019) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/tops.12332 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
The Police Officer's Dilemma: A Decade of Research on Racial Bias in the Decision to Shoot
Correll, J., Hudson, S. M., Guillermo, S., & Ma, D. S. (2014) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12099 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
On the Relation between Associative Strength and Automatic Behavior
Dijksterhuis, A., Aarts, H., Bargh, J. A., & van Knippenberg, A. (2000) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.2000.1427 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
“Hence, there is some evidence for variations in associative strength (but see Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park, 1997).”
BackgroundA Reconceptualization of How We Study Issues of Racial Prejudice
Shelton, J. N. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0404_6 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Паолини, С., Harwood, J., Rubin, M., Husnu, S., Joyce, N., & Hewstone, M. (2014) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2029 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Patterns and Personality Correlates of Implicit and Explicit Attitudes Toward Christians and Muslims
Rowatt, W. C., Franklin, L. M., & Cotton, M. (2005) · Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion · doi:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2005.00263.x · Cited by 194 · see citing works
“Implicit attitudes can be inferred from reaction times to make implicit associations (see Greenwald, McGhee, and Schwartz 1998), from reaction times to categorize items after certain evaluative primes (see Wittenbrink, Judd, and Park 1997 ), from unobtrusive behavioral measures (see Crosby, Bromley, and Saxe 1980; Fra…”
BackgroundBurgess, D. J., van Ryn, M., Crowley‐Matoka, M., & Malat, J. (2006) · Pain Medicine · doi:10.1111/j.1526-4637.2006.00105.x · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Ironic Effects of Racial Bias During Interracial Interactions
Shelton, J. N., Richeson, J. A., Salvatore, J., & Trawalter, S. (2005) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01547.x · Cited by 190 · see citing works
The Differential Effects of Solo Status on Members of High- and Low-Status Groups
Sekaquaptewa, D., & Thompson, M. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167202288013 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Taking a Look Underground: Detecting, Interpreting, and Reacting to Implicit Racial Biases
Monteith, M. J., Voils, C. I., & Ashburn‐Nardo, L. (2001) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.19.4.395.20759 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Racial Prejudice and Stereotype Activation
Kawakami, K., Dion, K. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (1998) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167298244007 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Ito, T. A., Thompson, E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204264335 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
“The latter tend to disguise their measurement interest (e.g., by presenting stimuli subliminally or saying the task is about word judgment; Dovidio et al., 1997; Fazio et al., 1995; Wittenbrink et al., 1997 ), whereas our participants had plenty of time to view the pictures and knew we were interested in their evaluat…”
BackgroundInfluentialEliminating automatic racial bias: Making race non-diagnostic for responses to criminal suspects
Plant, E. A., Peruche, B. M., & Butz, D. A. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2004.07.004 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
“faces as compared to White faces (Wittenbrink et al., 1997).”
Black Americans' Implicit Racial Associations And Their Implications for Intergroup Judgment
Ashburn‐Nardo, L., Knowles, M. L., & Monteith, M. J. (2003) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.21.1.61.21192 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
“There are numerous techniques for measuring implicit associations in relation to race, from priming procedures (e.g., Fazio et al., 1995; Gaertner & McLaughlin, 1983; Payne, 2001; Perdue, Dovidio, Gurtman, & Tyler, 1990; Wittenbrink et al., 1997) to considering how word fragments are completed (Gilbert & Hixon, 1991)…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialOttaway, S. A., Hayden, D. C., & Oakes, M. A. (2001) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.19.2.97.20706 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
- Authors
- Wittenbrink, B., Judd, C. M., & Park, B.
- Affiliations
- University of Colorado System (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1997-02
- Volume
- 72
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 262-274
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W1978374884
- Cited by
- 821
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 28 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 32 · 2013: 28 · 2012: 47
- FWCI
- 92.95
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH-45049, R01MH045049)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Names, Identity, and Discrimination Research
- Keywords
- racial stereotypes, semantic priming, implicit attitudes, African Americans, White Americans
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Awareness, Black or African American, Female, Humans, Male, Prejudice, Race Relations, Stereotyping, Word Association Tests, White People
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