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Exploring the benefits of task repetition and recycling for classroom language learning
Abstract
Task-based methodology is particularly suited to teaching languages for specific purposes, because of its affinity to behavioural objectives. Doubts have been expressed as to whether learners actually learn language through doing tasks, and if they do, exactly what they learn. This paper reports the preliminary results of an ongoing study of the benefits of building repetition into a communicative task in an English for Specific Purposes course. We compare the performances of two learners at markedly different levels of English proficiency and find that both benefited from the opportunity to recycle communicative content as they repeated complex tasks. This suggests that task repetition of the type reported here may be a useful pedagogic procedure and that the same task can help different learners develop different areas of their interlanguage.
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“Across previous empirical studies, the intervals between same-task repetitions vary considerably, such as massed (immediate) repetition (e.g., Lambert et al., 2017;Lynch & Maclean, 2000), across a few days (e.g., Ahmadian & Tavakoli, 2011;Gass et al., 1999;Kim & Tracy-Ventura, 2013), weeks (e.g., Fukuta, 2016), or months (e.g., Bygate, 2001).”
From MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT: AN EFL CLASSROOM STUDY (2022) · cites this paper as Lynch & Maclean, 2000
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TASK REPETITION AND SECOND LANGUAGE SPEECH PROCESSING
Lambert, C., Kormos, J., & Minn, D. (2017) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263116000085 · Cited by 281
“Of the different forms of planning proposed by Ellis ( 2005 ), rehearsal (or task repetition) has been shown to have the most robust effects on L2 fl uency (Ahmadian & Tavakoli, 2011 ; Arevart & Nation, 1991 , 1993 ; Bygate, 2001 ; Lynch & Maclean, 2000 ; Nation, 1989 ; Wang, 2014 ).”
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“Immediate repetition, on the other hand, was shown by Lynch and Maclean (2000, 2001) to improve accuracy in terms of phonology, vocabulary, semantic precision, and syntax.”
BackgroundSome benefits of peer–peer interaction: 10-year-old children practising with a communication task
Pinter, A. (2007) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168807074604 · Cited by 217
“Lynch and Maclean (2000; 2001) conducted a study which incorporated the repetition of a complex poster carousel task.”
BackgroundTeachers Exploring Tasks in English Language Teaching
Edwards, C., & Willis, J. R. (2005) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/9780230522961 · Cited by 214
“Learners also gained confidence as they talked about their topic for a second or third time; see Lynch and Maclean (2001) for further benefits of task repetition.”
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Introduction: Situating the concept of practice
DEKEYSER, R. M. (2007) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511667275.002 · Cited by 203
Sample, E., & Michel, M. C. (2015) · TESL Canada Journal · doi:10.18806/tesl.v31i0.1185 · Cited by 94
“Mackey et al. (2007) also noticed this pattern, which Bygate (2013) refers to as “learning the task discourse.”
BackgroundSources, developments and directions of task-based language teaching
Bygate, M. (2015) · Language Learning Journal · doi:10.1080/09571736.2015.1039566 · Cited by 201
“Similar results were reported by Lynch and Maclean (2000, 2001).”
ResultL2 output, reformulation and noticing: Implications for IL development
Adams, R. (2003) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1191/1362168803lr127oa · Cited by 179
Mayo, M. D. P. G., & Imaz-Agirre, A. (2016) · Language Learning Journal · doi:10.1080/09571736.2016.1185799 · Cited by 12
Wang, Z. (2014) · Task-Based Language Teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.5.02wan · Cited by 164
Ahmadian, M. J., & Tavakoli, M. (2011) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168810383329 · Cited by 334
“A number of studies have confirmed that task repetition enhances complexity and/or fluency (Bygate, 1996, 2001; Gass et al., 1999; Lynch & Maclean, 2000).”
BackgroundTask Familiarity and Interactional Feedback in Child ESL Classrooms
Mackey, A., KANGANAS, A. P., & Oliver, R. (2007) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.1002/j.1545-7249.2007.tb00060.x · Cited by 138
Taking communication to task? A critical review of recent trends in language teaching
Klapper, J. (2003) · Language Learning Journal · doi:10.1080/09571730385200061 · Cited by 146
Torky, S. A. E. F. (2006) · Cited by 136
Chik, A., & Benson, P. (2006) · Cited by 136
Repeating a Monologue Under Increasing Time Pressure: Effects on Fluency, Complexity, and Accuracy
Thai, C., & Boers, F. (2016) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.1002/tesq.232 · Cited by 131
Learning from the transcripts of an oral communication task
Lynch, T. (2007) · ELT Journal · doi:10.1093/elt/ccm050 · Cited by 121
“…sort can allow learners to exploit their familiarity, gained during first performance, with the content and task demands, and with the process of formulating the desired meanings, so that they are able to devote more attention to getting the language right (Lynch and Maclean 2000; Bygate 2001).”
BackgroundSelf-citationNitta, R., & Baba, K. (2018) · Task-Based Language Teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.11.11nit · Cited by 105
Ahmadian, M. (2011) · Language Learning Journal · doi:10.1080/09571736.2010.545239 · Cited by 75
Malicka, A. (2018) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168818813668 · Cited by 105
L2 fluency as influenced by content familiarity and planning: Performance, measurement, and pedagogy
Bui, G., & Huang, Z. (2016) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168816656650 · Cited by 108
“Rehearsal gives learners opportunities for pre-task practice, and thus to improve their performance (Lynch & Maclean, 2000).”
BackgroundTrends in Language Acquisition Research
Abbot‐Smith, K. (2013) · Trends in language acquisition research · doi:10.1075/tilar · Cited by 98
Mackey, A. (2007) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511667275.006 · Cited by 87
On the Temporal Nature of Planning in L1 and L2 Composing
Manchón, R. M., & de Larios, J. R. (2007) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2007.00428.x · Cited by 97
Amiryousefi, M. (2016) · Computer Assisted Language Learning · doi:10.1080/09588221.2016.1170040 · Cited by 85
“…(second language acquisition) literature have studied task repetition to gain an understanding of how it can affect different dimensions (complexity, accuracy, and fluency) of L2 performance (Ahmadian, 2011; Bygate, 1999, 2001; Lynch & Maclean, 2000; Mojavezi, 2013; Saeedi & Rahimi Kazerooni, 2013).”
BackgroundResultSome directions for the possible survival of TBLT as a real world project
Bygate, M. (2020) · Language Teaching · doi:10.1017/s0261444820000014 · Cited by 90
“Yet exploring TBLT in real life pedagogical contexts is not impossible: studies such as those reported by Lynch and Maclean (2000, 2001), Shintani (2016), Kobayashi and Kobayashi (2018), Lynch (2018) and Nitta and Baba (2018), were carried out by teacher-researchers focusing on activities that…”
BackgroundSecond Language Speech Fluency
Tavakoli, P., & Wright, C. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108589109 · Cited by 101
Suzuki, Y. (2021) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12433 · Cited by 76
Task-based language teaching: For the state secondary FL classroom?
Bruton, A. (2005) · Language Learning Journal · doi:10.1080/09571730585200091 · Cited by 78
Mukminin, A., Ali, R. M., & Ashari, M. (2015) · The Qualitative Report · doi:10.46743/2160-3715/2015.2280 · Cited by 78
Tavakoli, P., & Hunter, A.-M. (2018) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168817708462 · Cited by 96
Chapter 8. Perform, reflect, recycle
Lynch, T. (2018) · Task-Based Language Teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.11.08lyn · Cited by 7
Self-citationTask repetition and collaborative writing by EFL children: Beyond CAF measures
Hidalgo, M., & Lázaro-Ibarrola, A. (2020) · Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching · doi:10.14746/ssllt.2020.10.3.5 · Cited by 31
“…complexity and accuracy is more variable (Ahmadian & Tavakoli, 2011; Bagheri, Rahimi, & Riasati, 2012; Bret Blasco, 2014; Bygate, 2001; Bygate & Samuda, 2005; García Mayo, Imaz Agirre, & Azkarai, 2017; Hidalgo, 2018; Hu, 2018; Lynch & Maclean, 2000; Pinter, 2006, 2007, 2011; Sample & Michel, 2014).”
Viet, N. G. (2014) · The Journal of AsiaTEFL · Cited by 61
Spacing effects on repeated L2 task performance
Bui, G., Ahmadian, M. J., & Hunter, A.-M. (2019) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2018.12.006 · Cited by 106
Kim, Y., Kang, S., Yun, H., Kim, B., & Choi, B. (2020) · Foreign Language Annals · doi:10.1111/flan.12501 · Cited by 26
Bui, G. (2019) · IRAL - International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching · doi:10.1515/iral-2018-0244 · Cited by 67
Research into practice: Scaffolding learning processes to improve speaking performance
Goh, C. C. M. (2017) · Language Teaching · doi:10.1017/s0261444816000483 · Cited by 79
“…syntactic complexity (Kim & Tracy-Ventura, 2013) while those who repeated the same procedure with slight variations in content showed increased vocabulary use and accuracy in grammar and pronunciation as well as frequent occurrences of self-monitoring and corrections (Lynch & Maclean 2000, 2001 ).”
Byrnes, H., & Manchón, R. M. (2014) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.7.01byr · Cited by 54
Oral fluency in a second language: A research agenda for the next ten years
Foster, P. (2020) · Language Teaching · doi:10.1017/s026144482000018x · Cited by 68
Task Preparation and Second Language Speech Production
Lambert, C., Aubrey, S., & Leeming, P. (2020) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.1002/tesq.598 · Cited by 47
Chapter 6. The effects of task repetition across modalities and proficiency levels
Sánchez, A. J., Manchón, R. M., & Gilabert, R. (2020) · Language learning and language teaching · doi:10.1075/lllt.56.06san · Cited by 7
The distinctive nature of task repetition in writing: implications for theory, research and pedagogy
Manchón, R. M. (2014) · Elia · doi:10.12795/elia.2014.i14.02 · Cited by 40
“…measures of the speech produced (i.e., complexity, accuracy, and fluency, cf. Ahmadian & Tavakoli, 2010; Bygate, 2001; Kim & Tracy-Ventura, 2013; Lynch & Maclean, 2000; Saeedi & Kazerooni, 2014), looking at both short-term and longer-term changes, in the latter case ranging from 4 weeks (cf.…”
BackgroundMethodMASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT: AN EFL CLASSROOM STUDY
Suzuki, Y., & Hanzawa, K. (2022) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263121000358 · Cited by 59
“Task repetition enhances L2 fluency development (e.g., Ahmadian & Tavakoli, 2011; Bygate, 1996, 2001; de Jong & Perfetti, 2011; Lambert et al., 2017; Lynch & Maclean, 2000; Thai & Boers, 2016).”
BackgroundImpacts of task complexity on the development of L2 oral performance over time
Kim, Y., & Payant, C. (2017) · IRAL - International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching · doi:10.1515/iral-2017-0066 · Cited by 46
“Lynch and Maclean (2000) and Bygate (2001) showed how immediate and delayed repetition of tasks leads to increased fluency; when learners reproduce similar output, their language production becomes more automatic.”
BackgroundProcedural repetition in task-based interaction among young EFL learners
Ibarrola, A. L., & Hidalgo, M. D. L. Á. (2017) · ITL Review of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1075/itl.16024.laz · Cited by 42
L2 Tasks and Orientation to Form
Adams, R. J. (2006) · ITL Review of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.2143/itl.152.0.2017861 · Cited by 43
Payant, C., & Reagan, D. (2016) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168816669742 · Cited by 40
“…2011) as well as implementation variables including pre-task planning time (Philp, Oliver, & Mackey, 2006; Truong & Storch, 2007) and task repetition (Ahmadian & Tavakoli, 2010; Bygate, 2001; Kim, 2013; Kim & Payant, 2014; Lynch & Maclean, 2000; Pinter, 2005, 2007a, 2007b; Sample, & Michel, 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe influence of task repetition and task structure on EFL learners' oral narrative retellings
Saeedi, M., & Kazerooni, S. R. (2014) · Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching · doi:10.1080/17501229.2013.770860 · Cited by 17
“In the context of English for specific purposes, Lynch and Maclean (2000, 2001) required the participants to repeat the task of reading an academic article and preparing a poster presentation based on it.”
BackgroundSheppard, C., & Ellis, R. (2018) · Task-Based Language Teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.11.07she · Cited by 19
Chapter 3. The effects of task repetition and task complexity on L2 lexicon use
Kim, Y., Crossley, S., Jung, Y., Kyle, K., & Kang, S. (2018) · Task-Based Language Teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.11.03kim · Cited by 7
An exploratory study of pauses in computer-assisted EFL writing
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The Role of Tasks as Vehicles for Language Learning in Classroom Interaction
Kim, Y. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118531242.ch10 · Cited by 34
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THE ROLE OF TASK REPETITION IN LEARNING WORD-STRESS PATTERNS THROUGH AUDITORY PRIMING TASKS
Jung, Y., Kim, Y., & Murphy, J. M. (2017) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263117000031 · Cited by 30
“Lynch and Maclean (2000) found that immediate repetition of task procedures has positive effects on both accuracy and fluency of oral production.”
BackgroundOral Second Language Abilities as Expertise
Bygate, M. (2005) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/9780230523470_6 · Cited by 29
Effects of task type, task-type repetition, and performance criteria on L2 oral production
Xing-chao, H. (2018) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.11.06hu · Cited by 28
Bygate, M. (2018) · Task-Based Language Teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.11.intro · Cited by 3
Working Memory and Task Repetition in Second Language Oral Production
Ahmadian, M. (2013) · Asian Journal of English Language Teaching · doi:10.65961/ajelt-2013-1-003 · Cited by 14
“Two more recent studies were conducted by Lynch and McLean (2000, 2001) in an ESP context concerning task recycling in which “the basic communication goal remains the same, but with variations of content and emphasis depending on the visitor’s questions” (Lynch & McLean, 2000, p. 227).”
MethodThe Effect of Focus on Form and Task Complexity on L2 Learners’ Oral Task Performance
Salimi, A. (2015) · Advances in Language and Literary Studies · doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.6p.54 · Cited by 27
“Furthermore, according to a more SLA perspective to advocacy of TBT, issues such as learn ability, the order of acquisition of particular L2 structures, and the implications of the input, interaction and output hypothesis are central issues (Lynch & MacLean, 2000).”
BackgroundResultDeveloping and assessing second language listening and speaking: Does AI make it better?
Goh, C. C. M., & Aryadoust, V. (2025) · Annual Review of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1017/s0267190525100111 · Cited by 49
“There are many benefits of task repetition for L2 speaking such as improving fluency (Ahmadian & Tavakoli, 2011; Bygate, 2001), expanding vocabulary use (Lynch & Maclean, 2000), and better focus on form (Fukuta, 2016; Hawkes, 2012).”
Frequency Profiles of EFL Learners’ Lexical Availability
Catálan, R. M. J., & Fitzpatrick, T. (2013) · Educational linguistics · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7158-1_6 · Cited by 30
Second language learning through repeated engagement in a poster presentation task
Kobayashi, E., & Kobayashi, M. (2018) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.11.09kob · Cited by 24
Innovating with Concept Mapping
Cañas, A. J., Reiska, P., Novak, J. D., & Schwendimann, B. A. (2016) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-45501-3 · Cited by 24
The Effects of Task Repetition on Child EFL Learners’ Oral Performance
Sun, B., & Révész, A. (2021) · Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.37213/cjal.2021.31382 · Cited by 23
“…exact or procedural, have been confirmed for both adult (e.g., Ahmadian & Tavakoli, 2011; Bygate, 1996, 2009; Fukuta, 2016; Lambert et al., 2017; Lynch & Maclean, 2000, 2001; Sheppard & Ellis, 2018) and child (e.g., Kim & Tracy-Ventura, 2013; Mackey et al., 2007; Pinter, 2005, 2007a, 2007b;…”
BackgroundGameful Learning for a More Sustainable World
Hoffmann, G., & Pfeiffer, J. (2021) · Business & Information Systems Engineering · doi:10.1007/s12599-021-00731-x · Cited by 38
“Overall, studies on task-based language learning have reported repetition-based improvements for output factors of accuracy, complexity, repertoire and task success (Lynch and Maclean 2000; Pinter 2005).”
BackgroundAhmadian, M. J. (2012) · ELT Journal · doi:10.1093/elt/ccs020 · Cited by 45
“Published by Oxford University Press; all rights reserved. study by Lynch and Maclean (2000) revealed that recycling had positive effects on both accuracy and fluency in an English for Specific Purposes context.”
BackgroundThe impact of intra-cultural and inter-cultural task repetition on interaction
Aubrey, S. (2018) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.11.05aub · Cited by 23
Chapter 4. Discourse performance in L2 task repetition
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Researching task difficulty from an individual differences perspective
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“Findings in Ortega (2005) aligned with the cautious stance of Ellis (2000) about the consequences of orthodoxy in task-based research as any operationalization of task difficulty will remain impressionistic and reductionist unless the role of the learner is considered.”
BackgroundEffects of task repetition on EFL oral performance
Dawadi, S. (2019) · ITL Review of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1075/itl.16025.daw · Cited by 20
“However, this study differs from the design used by Lynch and Maclean (2000) and Bei (2013), among some others.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSecond language speakers’ awareness of their own comprehensibility
Strachan, L., Kennedy, S., & Trofimovich, P. (2019) · Journal of Second Language Pronunciation · doi:10.1075/jslp.18008.str · Cited by 19
Effects of Task Repetition and Self-reflection on EFL Learners’ Attentional Allocation and Speaking
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Strategic planning and repetition as metacognitive processes in task performance
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Task Condition Effects on Advanced‐Level Foreign Language Performance
Bui, G., Skehan, P., & Wang, Z. (2018) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119261650.ch12 · Cited by 19
The role of task repetition and learner self-assessment in technology-mediated task performance
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Language Mediation in an L3 Classroom: The Role of Task Modalities and Task Types
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In Flow with Task Repetition During Collaborative Oral and Writing Tasks
Zuniga, M., & Payant, C. (2021) · Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.37213/cjal.2021.31365 · Cited by 21
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Efficacy of Task-Based Learning in a Chinese EFL Classroom: A Case Study
Tang, H.-S., Chiou, J.-S., & Jarsaillon, O. (2015) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.5539/elt.v8n5p168 · Cited by 15
“How could we incorporate repetition into tasks without boring students? Lynch and Maclean (1994) concluded that TBL have particular value in ESP.”
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Hanzawa, K., & Suzuki, Y. (2023) · The Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/modl.12843 · Cited by 17
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“Nunan (2004) describes that there are two types of tasks which a learner perform in TBLL programme.”
BackgroundDifferentiating Task Repetition from Task Rehearsal
Bui, G., & Yu, R. (2021) · Task-Based Language Teaching and Assessment · doi:10.1007/978-981-16-4226-5_7 · Cited by 9
Nguyen, G. V. (2013) · Research Commons (University of Waikato) · Cited by 12
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“Similarly, Lynch and Maclean (2000, 2001) had 14 learners of English perform a poster-carousel task that involved them responding repeatedly to the same or similar questions from class peers about a poster they had prepared.”
Tabari, M. A., Khezrlou, S., & Ghanbar, H. (2024) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/13621688241249689 · Cited by 12
Suzuki, Y. (2021) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716421000187 · Cited by 13
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Reconsidering repetition in language education: an edusemiotic approach
Atoofi, S. (2018) · Social Semiotics · doi:10.1080/10350330.2018.1514777 · Cited by 11
“Moreover, language teachers frequently employ a task repetition and recycling routine, such as matching tasks, picture stories, and card-based games, in their pedagogy that both structurally and internally adopts the use of repetition (Bygate 2005; Lynch and Maclean 2000).”
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Bygate, M. (2016) · ITL Review of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1075/itl.167.1.01byg · Cited by 10
Effects of peer feedback on Taiwanese adolescents’ English speaking practices and development
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The effects of strategic planning and rehearsal on second language group discussion task performance
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“Past studies on the effects of rehearsal have generally shown that complexity, accuracy and fluency can all be potentially improved for monologue narrative tasks (Ahmadian and Tavakoli 2010; Bygate 1996, 2001; Bygate and Samuda 2005; Lynch and Maclean 2000, 2001).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Lynch, T., & Maclean, J.
- Affiliations
- University of Edinburgh (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Lynch, Tony
- Venue
- Language Teaching Research
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2000-07
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 221-250
- ISSN
- 1362-1688 (ISSN-L)
- 1477-0954
- OpenAlex
- W2100519114
- Semantic Scholar
- 0f6c43b29fdd612672c59fda833d338675428a91
- Cited by
- 260
- References
- 26
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 13 · 2014: 17 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 12.25
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Language Teaching Research (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- American Heart Association
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
- Social Sciences › Linguistics and Language › Second Language Learning and Teaching
- Keywords
- task repetition, task-based language teaching, English for specific purposes, interlanguage, learner proficiency level, communicative tasks
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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