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Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology
Open accessAbstract
We discuss three varieties of affective dynamics ( affective instability, emotional inertia, and emotional differentiation). In each case, we suggest how these affective dynamics should be operationalized and measured in daily life using time-intensive methods, like ecological momentary assessment or ambulatory assessment, and recommend time-sensitive analyses that take into account not only the variability but also the temporal dependency of reports. Studies that explore how these affective dynamics are associated with psychological disorders and symptoms are reviewed, and we emphasize that these affective processes are within a nexus of other components of emotion regulation.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that affective instability, emotional inertia, and emotional differentiation are dynamic processes best captured with time-intensive assessment (e.g., EMA/ambulatory assessment) and time-sensitive analyses rather than retrospective or variance-only indices. It links these dynamics to psychopathology, especially borderline personality disorder and depression, and recommends decomposing variability from temporal dependency.
Key findings
- Affective instability should combine variability and temporal dependency; a standard deviation alone is not time-sensitive. BPD consistently shows heightened instability, and Santangelo et al. (2014) found PTSD and bulimia nervosa patients showed similarly heightened instability of emotional valence and distress as BPD patients; instability is more extreme in BPD than MDD, with BPD showing higher variability and MDD showing higher temporal dependency.
- Emotional inertia, estimated as within-person autocorrelation of affect, is linked to depression vulnerability markers including neuroticism, low self-esteem, trait rumination, subclinical depressive symptoms, and the 5-HTTLPR polymorphism. Kuppens et al. (2012) found heightened inertia prospectively predicted MDD onset among adolescents even after adjusting for mean negative affect and gender, suggesting inertia may be an “early warning signal.”
- Emotional differentiation findings are mixed by disorder and valence: MDD showed lower negative emotion differentiation than controls but no positive differentiation difference; schizophrenia showed lower overall emotion differentiation but not for negative emotion; BPD showed less negative emotional differentiation than controls. Tomko et al. (in press) found greater momentary and average daily differentiation predicted lower momentary impulsivity, whereas a global 28-day measure of negative differentiation did not.
- The review concludes that affective dynamics are intraindividual and time-sensitive, should be assessed at momentary, daily, or weekly levels, and should not extend beyond daily levels unless testing periodicity hypotheses; it also notes that RDoC-style classifications often ignore dynamic emotional processes.
Methods
- Narrative review of three affective dynamics: affective instability, emotional inertia, and emotional differentiation. No primary sample or original data are reported.
- Synthesizes prior studies using ecological momentary assessment, ambulatory assessment, daily diaries, and laboratory methods, with emphasis on repeated momentary affect assessments.
- Main analysis is conceptual and methodological synthesis, recommending time-sensitive indices such as multilevel models of squared successive differences, probability of acute changes, multilevel autoregressive models, and intraclass correlations for differentiation; no systematic search or meta-analysis is described.
Limitations
- Stated in the paper: retrospective questionnaires and classical statistical indices are not well suited to within-person processes and introduce bias; standard deviation/variance is not time-sensitive; sampling frequency and timescale must match the process; average interitem correlations are less desirable than between-person ICCs; differentiation estimates confound systematic variability from time of day, day of week, and emotion-evoking events and ignore temporal dependencies; whether emotional inertia remains elevated during a current MDD episode remains unclear.
- Stated in the paper: Santangelo et al. (2014) argue that events/triggers of emotional episodes, appraisals/metacognitions, and subcomponents of dynamic processes are understudied.
- Evident from the text: this is a narrative review without a systematic search strategy or meta-analysis, reports no primary numerical effect sizes, and explicitly excludes other affective dynamics such as variability from its main focus.
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Claims the paper makes
29 Not checked yet · 15 Own interpretation
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Studies of affective instability using e-diaries and time-sensitive statistics have consistently found heightened affective instability in patients with BPD (Ebner-Priemer et al., 2007; Santangelo, Bohus, & Ebner-Priemer, 2012; Santangelo et al., 2014; Trull et al., 2008).”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > Affective Instability > Associations with Psychopathology
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ebner-Priemer et al., 2007
- Not checked yetcites Santangelo et al., 2014
- Not checked yetcites Trull et al., 2008
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Regarding the first subcomponent, BPD patients show higher levels of variability than individuals with MDD (Trull et al., 2008), perhaps reflecting greater reactivity to external events.”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > Affective Instability > Associations with Psychopathology
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Trull et al., 2008
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Because temporal dependency is inversely related to instability (Jahng et al., 2008), greater temporal dependency may contribute to relatively lower levels of instability observed among MDD versus BPD patients.”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > Affective Instability > Associations with Psychopathology
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Jahng et al., 2008
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Therefore, it is important to distinguish between variability and temporal dependency because differences in affective instability may be driven primarily by one of these subcomponents (Koval et al., 2013; Wang, Hamaker, & Bergeman, 2012).”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > Affective Instability > Associations with Psychopathology
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Koval et al., 2013
- Not checked yetcites Wang, Hamaker, & Bergeman, 2012
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Although a number of other mood and anxiety disorders are conceptualized as disorders of distress or emotion dysregulation, BPD is the only disorder for which affective instability is a specific diagnostic criterion (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013).”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > Affective Instability > Associations with Psychopathology
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“A standard deviation is not time-sensitive because it does not account for moment-to-moment changes in affect (Ebner-Priemer, Eid, Kleindienst, Stabenow, & Trull, 2009; Ebner-Priemer et al., 2007).”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ebner-Priemer, Eid, Kleindienst, Stabenow, & Trull, 2009
- Not checked yetcites Ebner-Priemer et al., 2007
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In fact, Kuppens et al. (2012) found that heightened inertia prospectively predicted the development of MDD among adolescents even after adjusting for several known depression risk factors, including mean levels of NA and gender.”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > Emotional Inertia > Associations With Psychopathology
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kuppens et al., 2012
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This may (partly) account for the greater affective instability associated with BPD.”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > Affective Instability > Associations with Psychopathology
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“A number of studies have linked heightened inertia, particularly of negative affect (NA), with indicators of increased vulnerability to depression, such as neuroticism (Suls et al., 1998), low self-esteem (Kuppens, Allen, et al., 2010), trait rumination (Koval, Kuppens, Allen, & Sheeber, 2012), subclinical depressive symptoms (Brose, Schmiedek, Koval, & Kuppens, 2015; Koval et al., 2013), and the”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > Emotional Inertia > Associations With Psychopathology
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Suls et al., 1998
- Not checked yetcites Kuppens, Allen, et al., 2010
- Not checked yetcites Koval, Kuppens, Allen, & Sheeber, 2012
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Sophisticated theoretical and statistical models have been developed, which make these subcomponents accessible to research (Kuppens, Oravecz, & Tuerlinckx, 2010).”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > Affective Instability > Associations with Psychopathology
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kuppens, Oravecz, & Tuerlinckx, 2010
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 12
- Probably not a substantial claim. 7
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, both traditional assessment methods (e.g. retrospective questionnaires) and classical statistical indices (e.g., group means) are (a) not well suited for fully capturing within-person processes over time and (b) introduce biases into measurement.”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although BPD and MDD patients both display heightened affective instability relative to controls, instability is more extreme in BPD than MDD (Trull et al., 2008).”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > Affective Instability > Associations with Psychopathology
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Trull et al., 2008
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Whereas depression is characterized by heightened temporal dependency of affect (i.e., a high autocorrelation), this is not typical for BPD (Houben, van den Noortgate, & Kuppens, in press).”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > Affective Instability > Associations with Psychopathology
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Houben, van den Noortgate, & Kuppens, in press
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“For instance, heightened instability has been reported in patients with anxiety disorders (Pfaltz, Michael, Grossman, Margraf, & Wilhelm, 2010), bipolar disorder (Jones, Hare, & Evershed, 2005), bulimia nervosa (Anestis et al., 2010; Selby et al., 2012; Vansteelandt, Probst, & Pieters, 2013), major depression (MDD; Thompson et al., 2012), and posttraumatic stress disorder (Kashdan, Uswatte, Steger”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > Affective Instability > Associations with Psychopathology
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pfaltz, Michael, Grossman, Margraf, & Wilhelm, 2010
- Not checked yetcites Jones, Hare, & Evershed, 2005
- Not checked yetcites Anestis et al., 2010
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Unfortunately, dynamic affective processes have historically been neglected in psychopathology research (Ebner-Priemer & Trull, 2011), and in behavioral science more generally (Molenaar & Campbell, 2009).”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ebner-Priemer & Trull, 2011
- Not checked yetcites Molenaar & Campbell, 2009
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This review of affective dynamics and psychopathology reveals consistent relations between affective instability and a wide range of disorders, between emotion inertia and poorer functioning (primarily increased vulnerability to depression), and between negative emotional (un)differentiation and disorders and features of emotional dysregulation and distress.”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > General Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“When differentiation as a stable individual difference is of interest (e.g., group differences in personality/traits) measures designed specifically for that purpose are available (Kang & Shaver, 2004).”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > Emotional Differentiation > Recommendations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kang & Shaver, 2004
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The method used to operationalize emotional differentiation depends crucially on the research question.”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > Emotional Differentiation > Recommendations
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
In the paper
“First, reliably and accurately identifying one’s emotions is important because effective emotion regulation relies on selecting a strategy that is appropriate for the specific emotion one is currently experiencing (Barrett et al., 2001).”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > Emotional Differentiation > Conceptualization
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Barrett et al., 2001
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is worthwhile to note that almost all of the reviewed studies adjust for intensity of experienced affect in estimating the association between emotional differentiation and various outcomes, making it unlikely that observed differences between clinical and healthy individuals is driven solely by clinical individuals’ more extreme affective experiences.”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > Emotional Differentiation > Associations With Psychopathology
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This again diverges from the concept of emotional clarity, which is typically thought of as a stable between-person individual difference that is intended to be measured cross-sectionally (Boden et al., 2013).”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > Emotional Differentiation > Measurement
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Boden et al., 2013
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A larger time frame is less likely to capture the ebb and flow of affect and to reveal the association with psychopathology and its features.”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > General Discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“The between-person differentiation estimates generated from diary and EMA data, like those reviewed before, may also serve as useful proxies for such investigations, but we note that there are substantial precision and bias limitations when using these methods (Lane & Trull, in press).”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > Emotional Differentiation > Recommendations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lane & Trull, in press
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Average interitem correlations are less desirable than between-person ICCs, as the prior is a special case of the latter in which the assumptions rarely hold.”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > Emotional Differentiation > Recommendations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The experience of affect is also interpreted in certain, sometimes idiosyncratic ways, and the way in which one responds to this experience will also be influenced by one’s ability to use adaptive coping strategies in the face of strong emotional experience.”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > General Discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In contrast, Tomko et al. (in press) were the first to provide a method for calculating differentiation at the level of experience and utilize it to predict dynamic outcomes.”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > Emotional Differentiation > Measurement
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tomko et al. (in press)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Instability, inertia, and emotional differentiation can be indexed at daily and weekly levels as well.”
§ Affective Dynamics in Psychopathology > General Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper relies on this without support.
Most psychological disorders show some kind of altered affective experience, deficient emotion regulation, or dysfunctional behavior to regulate emotions.
“However, most psychological disorders show some kind of altered affective experience, deficient emotion regulation, or dysfunctional behavior to regulate emotions.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Events and triggers of emotional episodes are rarely assessed in psychopathology research.
“First, events and triggers of emotional episodes are rarely assessed.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Emotional experience is dynamic, not static.
“Emotional experience is dynamic, not static, and methods that provide multiple microassessments of emotional experience across time and situations can shed light on the dynamic nature of various affective processes that are theorized to be central to the development and course of psychopathology.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Optimal mental health is not simply a function of experiencing more positive than negative affect, on average.
“Optimal mental health is not simply a function of experiencing more positive than negative affect, on average.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Monitoring and analyzing dynamic processes can be challenging.
“This is not surprising because monitoring and analyzing dynamic processes can be challenging.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The appraisal of events and the metacognitions of the associated affective processes have been largely neglected in psychopathology research.
“Second, the appraisal of events and the metacognitions of the associated affective processes have been largely neglected in psychopathology research (but see Thompson et al., 2012).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Human emotions and behavior are dynamic processes that unfold over time in everyday life.
“human emotions and behavior are dynamic processes that unfold over time in everyday life”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“EMA is an especially suitable method for assessing symptoms that are dynamic in nature (such as affective instability) (6, 23)”
From Don't Miss the Moment: A Systematic Review of Ecological Momentary Assessment in Suicide Research (2022) · cites this paper as [23]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Trull, T. J., Lane, S. P., Koval, P., & Ebner-Priemer, U. W.
- Affiliations
- University of Missouri (US)
- Australian Catholic University (AU)
- Department of Sport and Sport Science and House of Competence, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Germany
- Corresponding author
- Trull, Timothy J.
- Venue
- Emotion Review
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2015-07-09
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 355-361
- ISSN
- 1754-0739 (ISSN-L)
- 1754-0747
- PMC
- PMC5016030
- OpenAlex
- W2283355370
- Cited by
- 274
- References
- 57
- Citations by year
- 2026: 30 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 24 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 5
- FWCI
- 24.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Emotion Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Lirias (KU Leuven) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (P60AA011998, R21AA022099)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Disorders and Psychopathology
- Keywords
- emotional dynamics, neuroticism, emotional inertia, emotion differentiation, psychopathology, emotion regulation, ecological momentary assessment, ambulatory assessment
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