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Interleukin-1 in the pathogenesis and treatment of inflammatory diseases
Open accessAbstract
More than any other cytokine family, the IL-1 family of ligands and receptors is primarily associated with acute and chronic inflammation. The cytosolic segment of each IL-1 receptor family member contains the Toll-IL-1-receptor domain. This domain is also present in each Toll-like receptor, the receptors that respond to microbial products and viruses. Since Toll-IL-1-receptor domains are functional for both receptor families, responses to the IL-1 family are fundamental to innate immunity. Of the 11 members of the IL-1 family, IL-1β has emerged as a therapeutic target for an expanding number of systemic and local inflammatory conditions called autoinflammatory diseases. For these, neutralization of IL-1β results in a rapid and sustained reduction in disease severity. Treatment for autoimmune diseases often includes immunosuppressive drugs whereas neutralization of IL-1β is mostly anti-inflammatory. Although some autoinflammatory diseases are due to gain-of-function mutations for caspase-1 activity, common diseases such as gout, type 2 diabetes, heart failure, recurrent pericarditis, rheumatoid arthritis, and smoldering myeloma also are responsive to IL-1β neutralization. This review summarizes acute and chronic inflammatory diseases that are treated by reducing IL-1β activity and proposes that disease severity is affected by the anti-inflammatory members of the IL-1 family of ligands and receptors.
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“mitochondria are involved both in the recognition of pathogens and in many mechanisms of inflammatory response, inducing the subsequent recruitment of several proinflammatory cytokines [52].”
From Effects of Mangiferin on LPS-Induced Inflammation and SARS-CoV-2 Viral Adsorption in Human Lung Cells (2022) · cites this paper as [52]
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“IL-1β is produced in response to a wide range of physiological insults, and IL-1 signaling is closely linked to a wide variety of chronic inflammatory diseases, where it plays a critical role in the activation of inflammatory myelopoiesis (Ueda et al., 2009; Dinarello, 2011; Mirantes et al., 2014; Pietras, 2017).”
From PU.1 is required to restrain myelopoiesis during chronic inflammatory stress (2023) · cites this paper as Dinarello, 2011
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Immunological and inflammatory functions of the interleukin-1 family
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Gallegos-Hernández, V. E., Garcia-Valdés, E., Gómez-Chavarı́n, M., Silva‐Lucero, M., Saldaña-Mancilla, J., Bustamante‐García, R., Gómez-Martínez, A. E., Vázquez-Álvarez, A. M., Jaime-Fonseca, M. R., & Aragón, P. V. (2026) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu18193139
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Feng, Z., Liu, R.-R., Hou, J.-L., Zheng, Z.-H., Zhang, X., Fu, X.-H., Huo, F., Zhang, H., Ding, Y.-X., Meng, F.-Y., et al. (2026) · Cell Death and Differentiation · doi:10.1038/s41418-026-01875-7
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Fuentes-Barría, H., Aguilera-Eguía, R. A., Alarcón-Rivera, M., Flores-Fernández, C., Angarita, L., Aristizábal-Hoyos, J. A., & Soto, O. P. L. (2026) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2026.1849847
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“Unlike IL-1β, the synthesis of which is inducible, IL-1α is produced constitutively (although it can be upregulated) and is released actively or upon events damaging the integrity of the plasma membrane, such as cell death 26,27 .”
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“IL1RAP, as a co-receptor, serves as a key amplifier of the IL-1 signaling pathway [55].”
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“In addition, a study suggests that anti-IL-1 b therapy reduces macrophage in fi ltration and limits tissue damage (133).”
Phosphoregulation of interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase 1 in inflammatory signaling
Suresh, M., Vaz, C. E., Dcunha, L., Raju, R., Pinto, S., & Kanekar, S. (2026) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2026.1937314
“These receptors consistently utilize the adaptor protein MyD88 to recruit and activate IRAKs, particularly IRAK4 and IRAK1, which are essential for downstream signaling events (47, 48).”
Li, Z.-Q., Cao, L., Wang, J.-J., Gao, X., Suo, F.-T., Luo, F.-S., Xu, W.-T., Wang, Z.-Z., Zhang, X.-Z., & Xiao, W. (2026) · Clinical Rheumatology · doi:10.1007/s10067-026-08385-4
Arya, A. K., Sethuraman, K., Waddell, J., Bhat, A. R., Imtiyaz, Z., Walia, D., Liang, Y., Sung, Y., Lee, Y., Moayedi, S., et al. (2026) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms27177880
Jiang, H.-S., Gu, X.-Y., Li, J.-X., Chen, F.-B., Wang, X.-D., Zhang, J.-Y., & Savelkoul, H. (2026) · Poultry Science · doi:10.1016/j.psj.2026.107729
“Inflammatory cytokines (such as IL-1 β , IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α , etc.) are mainly secreted by monocytes/macrophages and lymphocytes, participating in pathophysiological processes such as inflammation, infection defense, and immune regulation (Dinarello, 2011).”
Neutrophil Fate and Function in Gout: From Sterile Inflammation to Resolution
Xu, Y., Yang, Q., Zhang, J., Wang, R., Zeng, S., Tuo, D., Xiao, N., Yan, H., Chen, B., Zhao, S., et al. (2026) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms27187979
“IL-37 has been reported to limit MSU crystal-induced innate immune responses [91], and IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) can counterbalance IL-1-mediated inflammatory signaling [92].”
Zhou, Y., Du, H., Zhang, Q., Meng, F., Wang, Y., Fan, J., & Li, W. (2026) · Journal of Inflammation Research · doi:10.2147/jir.s630988
“15,127,153,157,163,167,169,171”
Ridwan, B., Salmanida, F. P., Wahyuningtyas, R., Lai, Y., Wu, M., Chung, W., Chang, C.-T., & Chang, K. (2026) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines14090816
“…studies have demonstrated that IL-1 β functions as a central mediator of inflammatory responses and coordinates multiple downstream immune pathways [54], supporting the biological significance of the enriched GO terms observed in Group I. Interestingly, enrichment of NOD-like receptor signaling,…”
Kulka, M., Szopa, I. M., Różycki, B., & Klockiewicz, M. (2026) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms27188112
“Increased IL-1 β transcription following LPS stimulation has also been reported in activated leukocyte populations and is considered a hallmark of inflammatory activation downstream of TLR signaling [55,56].”
Trujillo, R. J., Lok, S., Bonassar, L., & Putnam, D. (2026) · Pharmaceutical Research · doi:10.1007/s11095-026-04196-z
Zhang, Z., Wang, D., Lin, Q., Guo, P., & Wang, Z. (2026) · Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology · doi:10.3389/fcell.2026.1914362
“…exacerbate mitochondrial dysfunction, and promote metabolic reprogramming, resulting in sustained succinate accumulation, HIF-1 α stabilization, and additional ROS generation (Dinarello, 2011; O’Neill et al., 2016; Vo et al., 2021; Mills et al., 2016; Chandel, 2015; Picard and Shirihai, 2022).”
Metcalfe, S., Settem, R. P., Ovalle, E. J., Panasiewicz, M., Escobar, A., & Kay, J. G. (2026) · PLoS Pathogens · doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1014574
Nuermaimaiti, Y. ·., Jureti, R., Maimaiti, A., Li, Y.-M., & Awuti, G. ·. (2026) · Acta Odontologica Scandinavica · doi:10.2340/aos.v85.46662
“Its potent pro-inflammatory activity is mediated by its secretion from immune cells, such as monocytes and macrophages, triggering a cascade of inflammatory event [31, 32].”
MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF INFLAMMATION IN DISEASE PROGRESSION AND THERAPEUTIC TARGETING
Padmavathy, K., Beevi, M., Choudhary, A. S., Kumari, P., Aedla, P. K., & Kaur, A. (2026) · Genetics and Molecular Research · doi:10.4238/p2z7m172
“The IL-1 blocking is of special interest in autoinflammatory disorders, where the overaction of the inflammasome is responsible for the unregulated production of IL-1b (Dinarello, 2011).”
Calıkoglu, B., Tümer, F. Y., Hacisahinogullari, H., Selcukbiricik, O. S., Üzüm, A. K., & Karşıdağ, K. (2026) · Journal of Istanbul Faculty of Medicine / İstanbul Tıp Fakültesi Dergisi · doi:10.26650/iuitfd.1885285
Silva, G. M., Pizzol, P. C. M., Lira, F., & Teixeira, M. F. (2026) · ACS Sensors · doi:10.1021/acssensors.6c01351
Sawant, T., Ganatra, P., Sawant, P., Parkar, A. N., Patel, M., Patel, N., Kaushik, G., Dandekar, P., & Jain, R. (2026) · World Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnology · doi:10.1007/s11274-026-05134-2
“…simple yet effective stimulant in the anti-inflammatory assay because it induces a strong, con - sistent, and dose-dependent inflammatory response in cell lines through activation of the Nuclear Factor Kappa B (NF-κB) and Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways (Dinarello 2011).”
Şeflekçi, Y., Yılmaz, A., & Ece, A. (2026) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules31162894
“Moreover, the overproduction of IL-1 β has been linked to the emergence of various conditions, including inflammatory and autoimmune disorders, arthritic diseases, septic shock, and neurodegenerative illnesses such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s [8].”
Chirițoiu, G. N., Ghenea, S., Isvoranu, G., Villeneuve, J., Munteanu, C. V. A., Pop, C., Bender, A., Petrescu, S. M., & Chiritoiu‐Butnaru, M. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.07.17.739124
DESIGN AND SYNTHESIS OF NEW YAKUCHINONE B DERIVATIVES AS POTENTIAL ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS
Farooqui, M. A., & Rasool, M. A. (2026) · International Journal of Drug Delivery Technology · doi:10.25258/ijddt.16.66s.3
“…asthma, inflammatory bowel disease, neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s, cardiovascular diseases, and metabolic disorders (Dinarello, 2011; Funk, 2001 The biosynthesis of inflammatory mediators is regulated primarily by the arachidonic acid pathway, involving the…”
Xi, M., Li, S., Tang, Y., Zhu, J., & Deng, S. (2026) · Journal of Oral Microbiology · doi:10.1080/20002297.2026.2699527 · Cited by 1
“Inflammatory diseases are broadly defined as conditions characterized by a dysregulated or abnormal inflammatory response that leads to tissue damage, organ dysfunction and clinical symptoms [94].”
Stegmann, K. P., Suresh, R. E., Eckert, T., Zobaer, M. S., Sowlat, M., Lehman, R. K., Revuelta, G. J., & Rowland, N. C. (2026) · Journal of Neurosurgery: Case Lessons · doi:10.3171/case25979
“38 , 39 40–42 Given NLRP12 ’s role in inflammatory regulation, we speculate that this mutation may have contributed to the severity of the initial ADEM in infancy and subsequent extent of neurological damage in our patient.”
Yılmaz, V., & Avcı, İ. (2026) · Boletim da Sociedade Paranaense de Matemática · doi:10.5269/bspm.82157
Natarajan, N., Ahmed, T., Govindaswamy, B., Manickam, D. S., Das, J., Islam, K., & Dutta, P. (2026) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.jbc.2026.113315
“…of mice treated with either empty or n-octyl-F IOX1 LNPs. Il1b , which has been shown to be crucial in inflammatory disease progression (36, 37), and iNos , which is a driver of inflammatory macrophages (38, 39), were both downregulated in the macrophages of n-octyl-IOX1 LNP-treated mice…”
Guo, Y., Chen, R., Qian, Y., Xu, Y., Yin, C., Jiao, X., & Pan, Z. (2026) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms14071500
“These pores serve as the primary conduit for the non-classical secretion of mature IL-1 β and IL-18 [48,49], which play non-redundant roles in orchestrating local inflammatory responses, recruiting neutrophils to the site of infection, and priming adaptive immunity [50].”
Qian, X.-Y., Ye, F., Li, Z., Chu, H.-Z., Xu, Z., Peng, W., Liang, X., Zhao, H.-C., Tang, Y., Zhong, P., et al. (2026) · Pharmaceuticals · doi:10.3390/ph19071083
“This apparent down-regulation may reflect disruption of the IL-1 β autocrine/paracrine positive feedback loop previously described in inflammatory tissue remodeling [56,57].”
Neuroligins and Neuropathic Pain: Insights into Synaptic Plasticity and Pain Transmission
García‐Domínguez, M. (2026) · Biology · doi:10.3390/biology15141180
“Binding to its receptor (IL-1R1), IL-1 β activates intracellular pathways including p38 MAPK and Src family kinases, which increase NMDA receptor phosphorylation and channel activity [184,185].”
Huang, Q., Xu, Y., Hu, J., & Tang, Z. (2026) · Digestive Diseases and Sciences · doi:10.1007/s10620-026-10064-y
“Current clinical management for HL-SAP mainly relies on lipid-lowering therapy, anti-infection, and supportive care, lacking targeted therapeutic strategies [39].”
Kumar, V., Mishra, S. K., Jamal, R., & Taleuzzaman, M. (2026) · In Silico Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/s40203-026-00684-7
“The restoration of IL-10 levels at higher doses suggests that Tofacitinib may also promote anti-inflammatory resolu - tion pathways, potentially through modulation of regulatory T-cell function and M2 macrophage polarization (Jacobson et al. 2002; Dinarello 2011; Tanaka et al. 2014).”
InfluentialMills, A., de Souza, A., Pham, T., & Mugisho, O. O. (2026) · Experimental Physiology · doi:10.1113/ep093714
“TheendogenousIL-1receptor antagonist, also known as anakinra, competes with IL-1 β for type I IL-1 receptor binding, while the type II receptor acts as a decoy lacking signalling capacity (Dinarello, 2011).”
Çelebi, D., Celebi, O., Başer, S., Guler, M. C., Taghizadehghalehjoughi, A., Aydın, E., Genç, S., & Hacımuftuoglu, A. (2026) · Archives of Microbiology · doi:10.1007/s00203-026-04985-5
“IL-1β is a major proinflammatory cytokine that is part of the interleukin-1 family, playing a crucial role in immune responses to infection and injury (Dinarello 2011 ).”
Effect of Add-on Yoga-Based Intervention on Schizophrenia: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Mullapudi, T., Varambally, S. S., Banerjee, M., Govindaraj, R., Raj, P., Kavya, P. V., Krishnayya, S. D., Haribabu, S., Kadiwal, K., Ravi, G. S., et al. (2026) · Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1080/08964289.2026.2669678
Kim, B., & Hwang, J.-W. (2026) · Reviews in cardiovascular medicine · doi:10.31083/rcm50417
“Anakinra is a recombinant IL-1Ra that competitively inhibits IL-1α and IL-1β signaling at the IL-1 type I receptor, thereby interrupting upstream innate immune activation central to autoinflammatory pericarditis [14,32].”
InfluentialMechanisms of Inflammation in Post-Operative Recurrence of Crohn’s Disease
Greenwood, H. T., Steiner, C., & Click, B. (2026) · Journal of Inflammation Research · doi:10.2147/jir.s546259
“124 125–127 Most data on TNF-α levels in POR come directly from clinical trials.”
Pyroptosis across species and its potential impact on host defense against zoonotic pathogens
Ho, S., & Bryant, C. E. (2026) · Cell chemical biology · doi:10.1016/j.chembiol.2026.05.008
Maclura tinctoria as a Modulator of Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Responses
Costa, E. P., Pires, A. R., Sarandy, M. M., Novaes, R. D., Brandão, G. C., Leite, J. P. V., Salustiano, I. V., Esposito, D., & Gonçalves, R. V. (2026) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms27125504
“This balanced modulation between pro-and anti-inflammatory signals may be particularly advantageous in therapeutic contexts, as excessive IL-1 β levels are often implicated in chronic inflammatory diseases [45].”
Cakmak, A. C., Høiby, N., Christophersen, L., Schwartz, F., Bock, M., & Moser, C. (2026) · Acta Pathologica, Microbiologica et Immunologica Scandinavica (APMIS) · doi:10.1111/apm.70232
“The pro-inflammatory markers assessed were interleukin (IL)- 1β (triggers local inflammation and fever) [23], IL-6 (inducing acute phase proteins and systemic response) [24], IL-8 (strong neutrophil chemoattractant) [25], IL-17 (stimulates neutrophil recruitment and antimicrobial peptide release)…”
Targeting IL-1β: a potential strategy for alleviating the immunopathology of aortic aneurysms
Zhang, F.-M., Liao, Y.-P., Zhao, D., & Guo, J.-W. (2026) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2026.1821082
Chou, C., Wang, Y., Kischkel, B., Chen, X., & Joosten, L. A. B. (2026) · Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2026.119555
Zhang, G., An, T., Dai, S., Huang, J., & Chen, P. (2026) · Clinical and Experimental Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10238-026-02121-7
“The interleukin-1 (IL-1) family of cytokines plays piv - otal roles in inflammatory responses and tissue repair pro - cesses [15 ].”
Dhotre, S. V., Dhotre, P. S., Rao, A., & Nagoba, B. (2026) · World Journal of Diabetes · doi:10.4239/wjd.v17.i5.118333
Urinary IL-1β and plasma IFN-γ levels reveal complementary immune mechanisms in endometriosis
Dimova-Mihaylova, E., Dimova, I., Andreeva, P., & Nikolova, D. (2026) · Pharmacia · doi:10.3897/pharmacia.73.e189520
“This is consistent with the participation of IL-1β in inflammasome activation, angiogenesis, and inflammatory amplification within the pelvic microenvironment (Lebovic et al. 2001; Dinarello et al. 2011).”
Won, H.-K., Lee, J., Yun, J. W., Park, K., Lee, J.-H., Cho, Y., Sang, H., Chung, K., Bachert, C., Choi, J.-P., et al. (2026) · Immune Network · doi:10.4110/in.2026.26.e21
“Coordinated changes in chemokines, cytokines (CXCL1, CXCL8), TLRs, and the specific enrichment of the IL-17 signaling pathway support a pattern consistent with sustained neutrophilic inflammation (28,29).”
Grudziński, I. P., Bamburowicz‐Klimkowska, M., Sochanowicz, B., Brzóska, K., Prochorec‐Sobieszek, M., Cabaj, M., Targońska, A., Stawarska, A., & Kruszewski, M. (2026) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2026.1842887
Doğantan, Ş., Oyacı, Y., Çakmak, F., Sayin, S., Kaplan, E. H. A., & Pehlivan, S. (2026) · Revista da Associação Médica Brasileira · doi:10.1590/1806-9282.20251421
“The -308G>A (rs1800629) variant enhances TNF-α expression, increasing protein levels and disease severity in JIA, especially systemic and RF-positive polyarticular types 1,3,4 .”
Lam, P. H., & Miller, G. E. (2026) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2026.106806 · Cited by 1
“It is also conceptually appealing for examining specificity links between specific biomarkers and particular outcomes (Dinarello, 2011; Picard et al., 2003; Schett et al., 2013).”
Modulating IL-1β-induced pro-atherogenic endothelial responses through drug repurposing
Solanki, K., Raja, S. R., Samanta, S., Shishira, P., Roy, A., Kar, P., Biswas, S., Ramkumar, K., & Baig, M. S. (2026) · InflammoPharmacology · doi:10.1007/s10787-026-02229-y
“Beyond this, the com - pounds can be relevant to chronic inflammatory disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel dis - ease, where IL-1β acts as a central player in the progression of disease phenotype (Aggeletopoulou et al. 2024; Dinarello 2011 ).”
The IL‐1β‐STING Signaling Axis Drives Neuromyelitis Optica Pathogenesis in a Murine Model
Han, S., Liang, Z.-Q., Zhang, C., Yang, S., Li, J.-D., Jiang, W., Xu, H., Li, H.-Y., Xiang, X., Guo, R.-Y., et al. (2026) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.78233
“38,39 Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) are highly effective, providing targeted gene silencing with minimal off-target activity.”
Akpan, M. M., Ikeji, C. N., Arije, C. M., Mohammed, K. A., Salaudeen, F. A., Adedara, I., Owumi, S., & Farombi, E. (2026) · Immunopharmacology and immunotoxicology · doi:10.1080/08923973.2026.2662624
“…il-1β il-1β is one of the more prominent pro-inflammatory members of the il-1 family and plays an important role in inflammatory response [72], up-regulating the secretion of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOs) and cyclooxygenase type 2 (cOx-2), and as well inducing the expression of…”
Xu, S., Liu, L.-F., Xiang, L.-B., Xu, J.-R., Shao, Y., Li, C.-T., Han, Y., Ren, Y.-X., Zhang, M., Li, N., et al. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-026-48530-2
“IL-1β is known for its roles in immune modulation and inflammation promotion, primarily secreted by macrophages to activate and proliferate T and B cells, thereby enhancing immune responses 26 .”
IL-1β/IL-1Ra ratio dysregulation in islet autoantibody–positive adult-onset diabetes
Tleumagambetova, B., Kudabayeva, K., Bazargaliyev, Y., & Vudu, L. (2026) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2026.1784582
Hwang, H.-S., Kim, M. J., Lee, J., & Oh, S. (2026) · Toxicology in Vitro · doi:10.1016/j.tiv.2026.106240
Kuridze, N., Giorgadze, S., Gabunia, L., Ghambashidze, K., Sulashvili, N., Didbaridze, T., Gvajaia, N., Kupradze, V., & Ratiani, L. (2026) · Revista română de medicină de laborator · doi:10.2478/rrlm-2026-0014
“IL-6 expression also rises during the acute phase but often extends into proliferation, where it contributes to fibroblast activation, extracellular matrix synthesis, and over-all tissue reconstruction [32-33].”
Shao, J., Xie, J., Zheng, X., Luo, X.-Y., & Xiong, A.-J. (2026) · International Reviews of Immunology · doi:10.1080/08830185.2026.2650140
“Although immune activation plays a crucial role in host defense, excessive immune activation can lead to the development of chronic inflammatory diseases [32].”
Expanding horizons of immunotherapy: from oncology to multisystemic applications
Narwal, P., Kasturia, N., & Banerjee, R. (2026) · Discover Applied Sciences · doi:10.1007/s42452-026-08439-x
Mao, K., Yu, C., Han, Z.-X., Li, T., Lin, J.-A., & Hu, S. (2026) · International Immunopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2026.116542
Challenges in the standardization of innate immune status assessment
Liu, Y., Mao, T., Chen, R., Luo, H., Zhang, S., Chen, F., Xiang, S. H. F., Li, W. Y., Liu, J., Guan, G., et al. (2026) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2026.1753841
Klanjscek, M., Trevisan, M., Pastore, S., Pardeo, M., Tommasini, A., Caorsi, R., Dell'Orso, G., Rumeileh, S. A., Conti, C., D'Ippolito, C., et al. (2026) · Pediatric Rheumatology Online Journal · doi:10.1186/s12969-026-01199-3
Stotts, C., Corrales‐Medina, V., deKemp, R. A., Wells, G. A., Beanlands, R. S., Raggi, P., Ferrara, G., Sligl, W., Connelly, K. A., Paul, N. S., et al. (2026) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2025-114239
“54 Inflammatory markers will be assessed using validated human cytokine ELISA kits, using a standard coefficient of variation of ≤ 20%0.”
Modulation of IL33/ST2 axis and mucosal healing in IBD: state of the art and future perspectives.
Migliore, G., Troisi, S., Petito, V., Masi, L., Capobianco, I., Scagnoli, B., Pirolli, D., Rosa, M. D. D., Righino, B., Pane, C., et al. (2026) · Minerva gastroenterologica · doi:10.23736/s2724-5985.26.04045-3
TREM2 sustains glucose metabolic homeostasis to drive antibacterial defense during sepsis
Wu, Z., Wang, X., Ren, Y., Shen, L., Pan, Y., Zhang, Y., Fan, J., Shu, Q., Fang, X., & 陈齐兴 (2026) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2026.115415
“13,14 Our previous work revealed that the overexpression of TREM2 in bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) can suppress classic caspase-1 inflammasome activation and IL-1 β release when these cells are challenged with bacteria in vitro .”
Wilbur, H. C., Zhao, L.-X., Nakazawa, M., Kao, C., Gordan, J. D., Gade, T. P., Cope, L., Kagohara, L. T., Zabransky, D., Ho, W., et al. (2026) · ESMO gastrointestinal oncology · doi:10.1016/j.esmogo.2025.100273
MicroRNA-mediated post-transcriptional regulation in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis
Ziaei, M., Dayani, L., Esmaeil, N., Ghashghaei, H. T., & Aliomrani, M. (2026) · Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology · doi:10.1007/s11055-026-01942-z
Autoinflammatory Gammopathies: When Clinical Significance is Inflammation
Borges, T., Barbosa, A., & Silva, S. (2026) · Indian Journal of Hematology and Blood Transfusion · doi:10.1007/s12288-026-02314-w
da Silva, N. P., de Moura, R. D., Silva, B., Djidonou, H. R., Brandão, L., & Crovella, S. (2026) · Discover Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12982-025-01314-x
“necrosis factor ɑ (TNF-ɑ ) and interleukin IL1-β, and the severity of the pathology is described in the literature [13–16].”
Monocytes in HIV associated atherosclerosis: A review of pathogenesis and clinical implications
Eini, P., Eini, P., Pourhemmati, S., Yousefimoghaddam, F., Taherkhani, A., & Yahya, R. (2026) · Caspian Journal of Internal Medicine · doi:10.22088/cjim.17.1.1
“Interleukin 1 beta antagonist: IL-1β, a pro -inflammatory cytokine, drives the inflammatory cascade in atherosclerosis, with elevated levels linked to heightened inflammation and plaque instability (69).”
Yu, H., Cao, Y., Wang, J.-B., Weng, X., & Xu, W. (2026) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2025.1695979
Bierer, J., Paffile, J., Stanzel, R., Henderson, M., Sapp, J., Andreou, P., Marshall, J., & Horné, D. (2026) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2025.1617524
“Speci fi cally, they induce the production of other innate cytokines and chemokines that activate macrophage and neutrophil machinery required for healing (29, 30).”
Decoy Receptors in Autoimmunity: Molecular Guardians and Pathogenic Players in Immune Dysregulation
Farahani, H., Kokhaei, P., Ganji, A., Mosayebi, G., & Ghazavi, A. (2026) · Mediators of Inflammation · doi:10.1155/mi/7430042
“By binding IL-1 β , IL-1RII reduces IL-1 β ’ s proin fl amma-tory effects in the gut, which is crucial for managing the intestinal in fl ammation characteristic of IBD [35].”
Neuroimmune Regulation of NLRP3 Signalling in Parkinson’s Disease
Rymbai, E., & Roy, D. (2026) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-026-06040-2
“Similarly, anakinra, a recombinant IL-1 receptor antagonist, competitively inhibits IL-1α/IL-1β engagement of IL-1R1 and suppresses downstream IL-1-dependent transcriptional amplification in autoinflammatory and inflammatory disorders [206, 207].”
Inflammation and the Heart: The Role of Traditional Factors
Cheraghi, M., Amin, A., Jabarzare, S., Sabooteh, T., Moradi, P., Dehghani, M., Sedighi, M., Hatami, F., Rafieian, A., & Farshidfar, T. (2026) · Cardiology Research and Practice · doi:10.1155/crp/4623305
Biochemistry of Inflammation: Molecular Pathways and Therapeutic Targets
Jasim, I. H., Alnoor, A. A., Jasim, Z. H., & Haider, Z. (2025) · Academic International Journal of Medical Update · doi:10.59675/u325
“IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) is a competitive inhibitor of the IL-1 biological activity that binds to IL-1R1 without initiating signalling, which is a natural competitive inhibitor [27].”
Diabetic Charcot Neuroarthropathy: A Contemporary Review of Molecular and Genetic Markers
Narayan, G., & Panchbhavi, V. (2025) · Foot & ankle international · doi:10.1177/10711007251390516
“12 The relatively high and normal concentrations of IL-1RA and IL-1 β in CF, respectively, could indicate modulation of the inflammation caused by proinflammatory cytokines.”
Rivera-Mariani, F. E., Srour, H. H., Godoy‐Vitorino, F., Bolaños-Rosero, B., Vélez-Torres, L. N., Maestre, J. P., Kinney, K. A., & Cavallín, H. (2025) · Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology · doi:10.1038/s41370-025-00835-6
Pattison, A., Engel, R. M., Chan, W. H., Greatorex, S., Nickless, D. K., Skinner, L., Cohen, C. A., Hickey, J., Georges, C., Fletcher, A. L., et al. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2025.12.09.693138
“Also significantly upregulated were the innate inflammatory markers IL1A and IL1B 69 (Table S11).”
Rajesh, Tabassum, A., Darekar, V. B., Indur, B., Tanwade, M., Saha, M., Manjunath, S., & Manjappa, B. (2025) · Biological Trace Element Research · doi:10.1007/s12011-025-04927-0
Novel Variant in the NLRP12 Gene: Insights From a Case Report and Systematic Review
Bouramtane, A., Elmakhzen, B., Elmouhi, H., Ahakoud, M., Bouguenouch, L., Ouldim, K., & Askander, O. (2025) · International Journal of Immunogenetics · doi:10.1111/iji.70028
Integrated bioinformatics decoding of the MASLD ceRNA network reveals novel therapeutic targets
Yu, S., Jiang, X., Peng, L., Zeng, X., Wen, S., Xiong, H., Guo, S., Huang, F., Liu, H., & Luo, Q. (2025) · Clinical and Experimental Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10238-025-01890-x
“A large body of evidence suggests that IL1-B regulates multiple inflammatory responses that are related to the pathological process of chronic inflammation [39].”
Abudayeh, A. H., & Fishchenko, I. V. (2025) · Clinical Rheumatology · doi:10.1007/s10067-025-07777-2
Handayani, S. W., Irawati, N., Tjong, D., Alimuddin, T., & Suchitra, A. (2025) · Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention · doi:10.31557/apjcp.2025.26.11.4079
“Increased levels of IL-1β have been associated to tumor growth, angiogenesis, and metastasis in various cancers, including colorectal cancer [7-11].”
Tariq, Z. Z., & Abdulwahab, M. H. (2025) · The Egyptian Journal of Medical Microbiology · doi:10.21608/ejmm.2025.433196.1938
“IL-1β production decreases when the course of treatment continues by feedback mechanisms, such as the activation of anti-inflammatory signals, which causes levels to return to normal 18 .”
Wang, W., Wang, Z.-H., Li, J., Ma, S.-Y., He, M., Liu, M.-X., Zhan, Y.-F., Jin, F., Qu, G., Yin, C., et al. (2025) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2025.1603083
“IL-1A is an early-response pro-inflammatory cytokine that is rapidly up-regulated during many acute viral infections, including influenza A and dengue virus, where it amplifies local inflammation and recruits neutrophils and monocytes to sites of infection (Dinarello, 2011).”
To the root of the problem: The possible link between genetics and recurrent pericarditis.
Bonaventura, A., & Abbate, A. (2025) · International Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2025.133785
Guo, Y.-M., Shi, H.-Y., Yan, S.-M., Shi, B.-L., Guo, X.-Y., & Zhao, Y.-L. (2025) · Italian Journal of Animal Science · doi:10.1080/1828051x.2025.2528556
“…of gram-negative bacteria, and the increasing evidence suggests that LPS causes an increase in the expression of genes encoding various pro-inflammatory cytokines (Pei and Wang 2015) and is commonly used as an inducer for IL-1 production stimulating cellular oxidative damage (Dinarello 2011).”
Ramos, Y. Á. L., Pietrobon, A. J., Teixeira, F. M. E., Aoki, V., Sato, M. N., & Orfali, R. L. (2025) · Anais Brasileiros de Dermatologia (Versão em Português) · doi:10.1016/j.abdp.2025.501136
Lin, G., & Dai, C.-Z. (2025) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000042811
Trodtfeld, F., & Wiegand, C. (2025) · Toxicology in Vitro · doi:10.1016/j.tiv.2025.106083
Effects of 2100 MHz radio-frequency fields on brain tissues and plasma of normal rats and obese rats
Günay, S., Delen, K., Özkan, E., Aksoy, D. K., & Aral, B. S. (2025) · Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1080/15368378.2025.2513903
“Following evidence linking mobile phone use with glioma, RFFs were classified as Group 2B possible carcinogens by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (Organization 2011).”
InfluentialAsgari, B., Bradford, G., Hatje, E., Kuballa, A., & Katouli, M. (2025) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms13061428
“In contrast, bacterial exposure led to the downregulation of genes involved in immune regulation, such as TGFB1 [50], and interleukin 1 beta (IL-1 β ), a potent pro-inflammatory cytokine [51] potentially affecting the activation of neutrophils and macrophages.”
Kiselev, A. M., Schmitter-Sánchez, A. D., Mishra, S., Kim, H., Williams, S., & Park, S. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.05.29.656912
“Both of these methods confirmed the differences between the steady, activated and migratory states (Fig 3”
Biotechnological approaches in cardiology based on modulation of mechanisms involving interleukin-1
Процак, Е. С., Borshchev, Y. Y., & Galagudza, M. M. (2025) · Regional blood circulation and microcirculation · doi:10.24884/1682-6655-2025-24-1-4-13
Caspase‐7 and Vitamin D Receptor Gene as Key Genes of Hypertension Caused by Pyroptosis in Human
Lou, Y., Hua, Y., Wu, T.-T., Sun, W., Yang, Y., & Kong, X.-Q. (2025) · The Journal of Clinical Hypertension · doi:10.1111/jch.70047
Metadata
- Authors
- Dinarello, C. A.
- Affiliations
- Radboud University Nijmegen (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Dinarello, Charles A.
- Venue
- Blood
- Publisher
- American Society of Hematology
- Published
- 2011-04-07
- Volume
- 117
- Issue
- 14
- Pages
- 3720-3732
- ISSN
- 0006-4971 (ISSN-L)
- 1528-0020
- PMC
- PMC3083294
- OpenAlex
- W2150107812
- Cited by
- 2,248
- References
- 118
- Citations by year
- 2026: 138 · 2025: 173 · 2024: 151 · 2023: 150 · 2022: 161 · 2021: 160 · 2020: 159 · 2019: 164 · 2018: 151 · 2017: 145 · 2016: 123 · 2015: 154 · 2014: 139 · 2013: 124 · 2012: 110
- FWCI
- 12.05
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Blood (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Cancer Institute (CA 046934, P30CA046934)
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (AI‑15614, R56AI015614, R01AI015614)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Inflammasome and immune disorders
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immune Response and Inflammation
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Cytokine Signaling Pathways and Interactions
- Keywords
- interleukin-1, IL-1 receptor family, innate immunity, autoinflammatory disease, autoimmune disease, caspase-1, gout, type 2 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, recurrent pericarditis, smoldering multiple myeloma, heart failure, anti-inflammatory therapy
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Autoimmune Diseases, Disease, Multigene Family, Humans, Inflammation, Interleukin-1, Models, Biological, Receptors, Interleukin-1, Toll-Like Receptors, Molecular Targeted Therapy
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