Psychological investigation of the structure of paranoia in a non-clinical population
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: Previous studies of paranoia have assessed only limited numbers of paranoid thoughts, and have not considered the experience from a multidimensional perspective or examined the relationship between different suspicious thoughts. AIMS: To assess a wide range of paranoid thoughts multidimensionally and examine their distribution, to identify the associated coping strategies and to examine social-cognitive processes and paranoia. METHOD: Six questionnaire assessments were completed by 1202 individuals using the internet. RESULTS: Paranoid thoughts occurred regularly in approximately a third of the group. Increasing endorsement of paranoid thoughts was characterised by the recruitment of rarer and odder ideas. Higher levels of paranoia were associated with emotional and avoidant coping, less use of rational and detached coping, negative attitudes to emotional expression, submissive behaviours and lower social rank. CONCLUSIONS: Suspiciousness is common and there may be a hierarchical arrangement of such thoughts that builds on common emotional concerns.
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Persecutory delusions are the extreme end of a spectrum of paranoia in the general population.
“They are the extreme end of a spectrum of paranoia in the general population.”
From A counterweight model for understanding and treating persecutory delusions. (2025) · cites this paper as Freeman et al., 2005
Cannabis use is associated with paranoia.
“and that CU is associated with paranoia (Freeman et al., 2005).”
From Can epigenetics shine a light on the biological pathways underlying major mental disorders? (2022) · cites this paper as Freeman et al., 2005
The Aims and Paranoid thoughts occurred sections describe associations between paranoia and coping or social-cognitive factors, but do not address cannabis use. Searches for cannabis, marijuana, and substance or drug use found no passage linking cannabis use to paranoia in our copy; page numbers were not available. (LLM, conf=0.75)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPsychotic symptoms, and specifically paranoia, are not confined to clinically defined groups but are distributed across the general population.
“Evidence suggests that psychotic symptoms [54–56], and specifically paranoia [16], are not only confined to clinically defined groups, but are distributed across the general population.”
From A structural equation model of the relationship between insomnia, negative affect, and paranoid thinking (2017) · cites this paper as [16]
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- Authors
- Freeman, D., Garety, P. A., Bebbington, P. E., Smith, B., Rollinson, R., Fowler, D., Kuipers, E., Ray, K., & Dunn, G.
- Affiliations
- King's College London (GB)
- The Royal Free Hospital (GB)
- University of East Anglia (GB)
- University of Manchester (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Freeman, Daniel
- ORCID
- Venue
- British Journal of Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Royal College of Psychiatrists
- Published
- 2005-05
- Volume
- 186
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 427-435
- ISSN
- 0007-1250 (ISSN-L)
- 1472-1465
- OpenAlex
- W2131204413
- Cited by
- 786
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 44 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 51 · 2019: 47 · 2018: 52 · 2017: 52 · 2016: 44 · 2015: 38 · 2014: 43 · 2013: 34 · 2012: 29
- FWCI
- 8.82
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The British Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion)
- UEA Digital Repository (University of East Anglia) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust
- University of East Anglia
- King's College London
- Menzies Centre for Australian Studies, King's College London, University of London
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Schizophrenia research and treatment
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Mental Health and Psychiatry
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- paranoia, paranoid thinking, suspicion, non-clinical population, coping strategies, socio-cognitive processes, emotional expression, social rank, avoidance coping
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Adolescent, Adult, Attitude to Health, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Paranoid Disorders, Psychological Tests, Surveys and Questionnaires, Sensitivity and Specificity, Thinking
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