The DOI matches its Crossref record; 63 of the 89 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 5 of the 48 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning
Open accessAbstract
Complex learning aims at the integration of knowledge, skills, and attitudes; the coordination of qualitatively different constituent skills; and the transfer of what is learned to daily life or work settings. Recent instructional theories stress authentic learning tasks as the driving force for learning; but due to the complexity of those tasks, learning may be hampered by the limited processing capacity of the human mind. In this article we present a framework for scaffolding practice and just-in-time information presentation, aiming to control cognitive load effectively. We briefly describe a design model for complex learning consistent with cognitive load theory. Theoretical and practical implications of the presented framework are discussed.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This conceptual article argues that authentic whole-task learning can overwhelm working memory, so instruction should manage cognitive load through scaffolding and timely information. It proposes simple-to-complex task classes, alternative task formats, and just-in-time supportive and procedural information within a four-component design model.
Key findings
- Whole-task sequencing should start with the simplest authentic versions of a task and move through task classes of increasing complexity; simpler classes impose lower intrinsic load and should fall within learners’ proximal development.
- Within a task class, support should fade from worked-out examples to completion, goal-free, or reverse tasks, and finally to conventional problems; these alternatives reduce extraneous load compared with conventional problem solving.
- Supportive information for nonrecurrent aspects should be presented before a task class and elaborated, while procedural information for recurrent aspects should be presented during practice and integrated with the task environment to avoid split attention.
- The 4C/ID model consists of learning tasks, supportive information, procedural information, and part-task practice; part-task practice is reserved for recurrent aspects requiring high automaticity after they have been introduced in whole tasks.
Methods
- Conceptual/theoretical paper, not an empirical study; no sample, data collection, or statistical analysis is reported.
- Synthesizes cognitive load theory and instructional design literature to derive guidelines and a design model for complex learning.
- Uses narrative argument and illustrative examples, such as a literature-search task and a table of task types, rather than original quantitative results.
Limitations
- The authors state the overview is incomplete and note that they are unaware of empirical research relating process-oriented support to cognitive load.
- The authors state the framework focuses on reducing intrinsic and extraneous load as a means to free processing resources, and that explicit methods to increase germane load may be needed; they also note that cognitive load theory alone is insufficient for a full instructional design model.
- Evident from the text: no original empirical test, effect sizes, or new data are presented, so the claims rest on prior studies and conceptual consistency.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
5 of 48 cited sources checked · 3 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Indeed, many experiments supported the counterintuitive prediction that studying worked-out examples facilitates schema construction and transfer performance more than actually solving the equivalent problems does (van Gerven, Paas, van Merriënboer, & Schmidt, 2002; also see Sweller et al., 1998, for an overview).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Types of Learning Tasks
What the sources say
- Supportedcites van Gerven, Paas, van Merriënboer, & Schmidt, 2002 source
Section 4 states that worked examples are more likely than conventional problems to support schema construction and that numerous studies found superior performance and transfer. The Discussion says this paper's own experiment did not find a significant performance advantage, but the cited claim concerns the broader experimental literature the paper reports. (LLM, conf=0.90)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sweller et al., 1998 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Simultaneously performing the tasks and studying the information would almost certainly cause cognitive overload (Kester et al., 2001;Marcus, Cooper, & Sweller, 1996).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Supportive Information
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Kester et al., 2001 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Section 2 recommends presenting supportive information before task clusters, and section 2.1 explains that working-memory capacity is limited. These passages support separating study of supportive information from task performance, but they do not say that doing both simultaneously would almost certainly cause cognitive overload. The Discussion (section 6) calls the preferred timing an assumption needing further support. (LLM, conf=0.82)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Marcus, Cooper, & Sweller, 1996 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The second is called procedural information and is best presented precisely when it is needed during task performance; it pertains to the how-to instructions for the application of rules (Kester, Kirschner, van Merriënboer, & Baumer, 2001).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > JUST-IN-TIME INFORMATION PRESENTATION
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Kester, Kirschner, van Merriënboer, & Baumer, 2001 source
Section 2.1 states that prerequisite information is best presented during practice, when learners need it. Section 4.2.5 includes procedures for operating the system among that prerequisite information, supporting the citing sentence’s description of procedural how-to information. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For subsequent task classes, only new (additional) supportive information should be presented-extending the set of interacting elements (Pollock et al., 2002).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Supportive Information
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Pollock et al., 2002 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The paper describes a progression from isolated elements to learning their interactions in a second phase (Abstract; Results and Discussion). But it says that the second phase presented all the information needed for understanding, not only new or additional information. It does not prescribe this rule for subsequent task classes. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such embedded support is clearly more effective than nonintegrated support (i.e., the parent running alongside and shouting”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > SCAFFOLDING WHOLE-TASK PRACTICE
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Excessive or insufficient support can hamper the learning process.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We conclude that CLT offers useful guidelines for decreasing intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load, so that sufficient processing capacity is left for genuine learning.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
In the paper
“Since then, there has been accumulating evidence that both part-task approaches to sequencing and instructional design models driven by separate objectives do not work well for complex performances that require the integration of skills, knowledge, and attitudes and the extensive coordination of constituent skills in new problem situations (see van Merriënboer, 1997, for a complete discussion).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites van Merriënboer, 1997
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novice learners, learning and performing conventional tasks are different and incompatible processes.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Types of Learning Tasks
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“But Naylor and Briggs (1963) already indicated in the early 1960s that they are not very suitable for learning complex tasks requiring much coordination between their distinct parts or constituent skills.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Naylor and Briggs (1963) source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Each new task class contains learning tasks that are in the zone of proximal development of the learners (Vygotsky, 1934(Vygotsky, /1987)).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Vygotsky, 1934/1987
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Not matched
- It may state two separate claims as one. 13
- Probably not a substantial claim. 17
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Less elements and interactions between elements need to be processed simultaneously in working memory when performing the tasks in simpler task classes; for more complex task classes, the number of elements and interactions between elements increases (cf.Pollock, Chandler, & Sweller, 2002).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Pollock, Chandler, & Sweller, 2002 source
The Results and Discussion passage says complex material involves more interacting elements than working memory can process simultaneously unless they are incorporated into a schema. The passage on sources of cognitive load also describes a continuum from few elements with low interactivity to many elements with high interactivity, supporting the simpler-versus-more-complex comparison. (LLM, conf=0.92)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
- Supported
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“CLT emphasizes the need to integrate support for novice learners with the task environment fully; otherwise, split-attention effects increase extraneous cognitive load because learners have to integrate information mentally from the task environment with the given support (Chandler & Sweller, 1992;Sweller & Chandler, 1994).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > SCAFFOLDING WHOLE-TASK PRACTICE
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
In the paper
“There is overwhelming evidence that such conventional tasks are exceptionally expensive in terms of working memory capacity.They cause high-extraneous cognitive load due to the use of weak problem-solving methods (e.g., means-ends analysis), which bear little relation to schema construction processes that are concerned with learning to recognize problem states and their associated actions (Sweller”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Types of Learning Tasks
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sweller, 1988 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For information with a high-intrinsic complexity, it seems advisable to present the information before the learners start on the learning tasks.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > JUST-IN-TIME INFORMATION PRESENTATION
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Part-task approaches to sequencing are highly effective to prevent cognitive overload because the load associated with a part of the task is lower than the load associated with the whole task.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This necessary information must be active in working memory when performing the task to guide or influence behavior.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > JUST-IN-TIME INFORMATION PRESENTATION
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Goal-free tasks present the learner with a highly aspecific goal, which eliminates the need for means-ends search and so decreases extraneous cognitive load (Paas, Camp, & Rikers, 2001; also see Sweller et al., 1998, for an overview).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Types of Learning Tasks
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whole-task approaches attend to the coordination and integration of constituent skills from the very beginning, and they stress that learners quickly develop a holistic vision of the whole task that is gradually embellished during the training.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Recent instructional theories stress authentic learning tasks as the driving force for learning; but due to the complexity of those tasks, learning may be hampered by the limited processing capacity of the human mind.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“Recent instructional theories tend to focus on authentic learning tasks that are based on real-life tasks as the driving force for learning (Merrill, 2002;Reigeluth, 1999a;van Merriënboer & Kirschner, 2001).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
In the paper
“Fading is also important because the positive effects found for worked-out examples may reverse as learners acquire more expertise: If the necessary schemas for solving a problem are already available, analyzing a redundant worked-out example and integrating it with previously acquired schemas in working memory may impose higher cognitive load than problem solving (see Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, &”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Types of Learning Tasks
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it is critical to prevent split-attention effects when presenting this information.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Procedural Information
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The supportive information is presented in a just-in-time fashion to work on the nonrecurrent aspects of learning tasks within the same task class”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The learning tasks within the same task class are equivalent in the sense that they may be performed on the basis of the same general knowledge (i.e., mental models and cognitive strategies that allow one to perform a version of the task with a particular complexity).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The procedural information, in contrast, is presented just in time to perform the consistent, recurrent aspects of the learning tasks”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Supportive information may be helpful in performing the nonrecurrent aspects of learning tasks.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Procedural Information
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“each task class starts with one or more learning tasks with a high level of embedded support (e.g., worked-out examples), continues with learning tasks with a lower level of support (e.g., completion, goal-free, or reverse tasks), and ends with conventional tasks without support.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It preferably takes the form of direct, step-by-step, or how-to instruction and is quickly faded away for subsequent learning tasks.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For each subsequent task class, additional supportive information is presented to enable the learners to perform the more complex version of the whole task.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These learning tasks will typically be performed by the learners in a simulated or real task environment and, ideally, confront them with all constituent skills that make up the whole complex skill.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the cognitive load imposed by instructional designs should be the preeminent consideration when determining design structures.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > DISCUSSION
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Rests on an assumption: Limited working memory is the most central aspect of human cognitive architecture.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For those aspects, additional part-task practice may be provided-such as children drilling multiplication tables or musicians practicing musical scales.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“when learners have enough expertise, procedural information will become redundant and should thus be removed to decrease extraneous cognitive load (Kalyuga et al.,1998).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Procedural Information
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kalyuga et al.,1998 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Elaboration of the procedural information beforehand has no added value whatsoever; therefore, it is preferably presented precisely when learners need it.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Procedural Information
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The supportive information for each subsequent task class is an addition to or an embellishment of previous information-allowing learners to do things they could not do before.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Supportive Information
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This process of induction is important for constructing new knowledge and, especially, for adapting existing schemas to make them more appropriate to the given experiences (Holland, Holyoak, Nisbett, & Thagard, 1986).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Supportive Information
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Holland, Holyoak, Nisbett, & Thagard, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This four-component instructional design model (referred to hereafter as the 4C/ID model) presupposes that well-designed learning environments for complex learning always consist of four components: (a) learning tasks, (b) supportive information, (c) procedural information, and (d) part-task practice.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is repeated for each subsequent task class, yielding a saw-tooth pattern of support throughout the whole training program.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“They are highly domain specific and allow only for the same use of the same knowledge for performing recurrent aspects of tasks.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Procedural Information
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Anderson, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Anderson, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Newell, 1991
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The authors state this as an assumption.
Authentic learning tasks help learners integrate knowledge, skills, and attitudes; coordinate constituent skills; and transfer what is learned to daily life or work settings.
“The general assumption is that such tasks help learners to integrate the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary for effective task performance; give them the opportunity to learn to coordinate constituent skills that make up complex task performance; and eventually enable them to transfer what is learned to their daily life or work settings.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The human mind has limited processing capacity.
“due to the complexity of those tasks, learning may be hampered by the limited processing capacity of the human mind.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Excessive or insufficient support can hamper the learning process.
“Because excessive or insufficient support can hamper the learning process, it is critical to determine the right type and amount of support and to fade at the appropriate time and rate.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Recent instructional theories tend to focus on real-life tasks as the driving force for learning.
“This article started from the observation that recent instructional theories tend to focus on real-life tasks as the driving force for learning.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Limited working memory is the most central aspect of human cognitive architecture.
“limited working memory is no doubt the most central aspect of human cognitive architecture.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Real-life tasks are typically associated with a very high cognitive load.
“Such tasks are typically associated with a very high-cognitive load”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Certain authors have suggested, for example, that the learner's cognitive load is reduced with the aid of scaffolding and that this thus allows the learner to perform parts of a task that he or she would otherwise not be able to perform”
From Scaffolding in Teacher–Student Interaction: A Decade of Research (2010) · cites this paper as Van Merriënboer et al. 2003
In the citing paper
“For the automation of schemas, compilation and strengthening are the most relevant cognitive processes (Anderson 2000;Van Merriënboer 1997;Van Merriënboer et al. 2003).”
From Interactivity in Video-based Models (2007) · cites this paper as Van Merriënboer et al. 2003
In the citing paper
“To construct adequate schemas two types of cognitive processes are important; elaboration and induction (Van Merriënboer 1997;Van Merriënboer et al. 2003).”
From Interactivity in Video-based Models (2007) · cites this paper as Van Merriënboer et al. 2003
Citations
Cites
The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.
Miller, G. A. (1994) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.101.2.343 · Cited by 17,559
Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning
Sweller, J. (1988) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7 · Cited by 11,048
Axten, N., Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1973) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2063712 · Cited by 6,886
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Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design
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Items 201–300 of 856
The application of educational technology to develop problem-solving skills: A systematic review
Lu, D., & Xie, Y.-N. (2023) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2023.101454 · Cited by 43
Complex Problem Solving and Worked Examples
Schmidt‐Weigand, F., Hänze, M., & Wodzinski, R. (2009) · Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie · doi:10.1024/1010-0652.23.2.129 · Cited by 39
Dohaney, J., Brogt, E., Kennedy, B. M., Wilson, T., & Lindsay, J. M. (2015) · Journal of Applied Volcanology · doi:10.1186/s13617-015-0030-1 · Cited by 43
“Gradually, support can be reduced as students learn to cope with increased cognitive load (van Merriënboer et al. 2003).”
BackgroundImplications of Designing Instructional Video Using Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning.
Ibrahim, M. M. (2012) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 38
Altering Element Interactivity and Intrinsic Cognitive load
Sweller, J., Ayres, P., & Kalyuga, S. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-8126-4_16 · Cited by 54
Teaching people how to teach robots
Çakmak, M., & Takayama, L. A. (2014) · ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) · doi:10.1145/2559636.2559675 · Cited by 38
“Our work is also influenced by a long line of research on the role of mental models in learning to operate new devices [11] and methods for e↵ective instructional design for learning complex tasks [20, 1].”
BackgroundLiu, H., & Su, I. (2010) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.01047.x · Cited by 41
Lakkala, M., Muukkonen, H., Paavola, S., & Hakkarainen, K. (2008) · Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning · doi:10.1142/s1793206808000446 · Cited by 38
Holtslander, L. F., Racine, L., Furniss, S., Burles, M. C., & Turner, H. (2012) · Journal of Nursing Education · doi:10.3928/01484834-20120427-03 · Cited by 37
The seven-step palpation method: A proposal to improve palpation skills
Aubin, A., Gagnon, K., & Morin, C. (2013) · International journal of osteopathic medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ijosm.2013.02.001 · Cited by 38
Applying social tagging to manage cognitive load in a Web 2.0 self-learning environment
Huang, Y., Huang, Y.-M., Liu, C., & Tsai, C. (2011) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2011.555839 · Cited by 37
“However, some strategies have been developed to reduce ICL, such as isolated-interacting elements (Pollock et al., 2002), simple-to-complex sequencing of learning tasks (van Merrie¨nboer et al., 2003), and just-in-time information presentation (Kester et al., 2006).”
MethodJamil, F. M., & Hamre, B. K. (2018) · Action in Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/01626620.2018.1424051 · Cited by 45
The expertise reversal effect concerning instructional explanations
Rey, G. D., & Fischer, A. (2012) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-012-9237-2 · Cited by 42
“Schema construction includes two types of cognitive processes, namely schema elaboration and schema induction (Van Merrie¨nboer et al. 2003; Wouters et al. 2007).”
BackgroundParrott, D. J., Halmos, M. B., Stappenbeck, C. A., & Moino, K. (2021) · Psychology of Violence · doi:10.1037/vio0000395 · Cited by 37
Corbalan, G., Kester, L., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2010) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.05.026 · Cited by 36
Self-citationInteractive distance education: a cognitive load perspective
Kalyuga, S. (2012) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-012-9060-4 · Cited by 41
“For example, the principle of scaffolding suggests using worked examples, completion assignments, and conventional problems combined in a completion strategy that require students to complete partially worked-out problems (Van Merriënboer 1990; van Merrienboer et al. 2003).”
BackgroundTheoretical foundations for collaboration engineering
Kolfschoten, G. L. (2007) · Research Repository (Delft University of Technology) · Cited by 34
Chen, Y., Jordan, M. E., Park, J., & Starrett, E. (2024) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.21864 · Cited by 39
Frieder, R. E., Iddekinge, C. H. V., & Raymark, P. H. (2015) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12118 · Cited by 39
Assessment for Learning: Developing the required teacher competencies
Wolterinck, C. H. D., Poortman, C. L., Schildkamp, K., & Visscher, A. J. (2022) · European Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/02619768.2022.2124912 · Cited by 41
Moozeh, K., Farmer, J., Tihanyi, D., Nadar, T., & Evans, G. J. (2019) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.9b00107 · Cited by 36
Active Distance Learning of Embedded Systems
Shoufan, A. (2021) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2021.3065248 · Cited by 33
“Segmentation and sequencing are believed to reduce the intrinsic cognitive load in the learner’s working memory [34], [35].”
BackgroundPerception Engineering Learning With Virtual Reality
Bohné, T., Heine, I., Gürerk, Ö., Rieger, C., Kemmer, L., & Cao, L. Y. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies · doi:10.1109/tlt.2021.3107407 · Cited by 37
The pedagogical use of information and communication technology in education: a Dutch perspective
van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Brand‐Gruwel, S. (2004) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2004.10.004 · Cited by 33
Self-citationLee, Y.-J. (2011) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.09.008 · Cited by 33
Helle, L., & Säljö, R. (2012) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-012-9216-7 · Cited by 32
“Students should also work with whole tasks instead of conventional part tasks from the beginning but with gradually decreasing amounts of external support (van Merrie¨nboer et al. 2003).”
BackgroundAngeli, C., & Valanides, N. (2013) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-013-9298-1 · Cited by 32
“…cognitive load imposed by the combination of the number of elements in the complex problem and the interactivity of those elements is so high that instructional efforts should be directed toward managing and reducing the extraneous cognitive load (Sweller et al. 1998; van Merrienboer et al. 2003).”
BackgroundFarris, C., Trofimovich, P., Segalowitz, N. S., et al. (2008) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.1002/j.1545-7249.2008.tb00138.x · Cited by 32
A Training Approach for the Transition of Repeatable Collaboration Processes to Practitioners
Kolfschoten, G. L., de Vreede, G., & Pietron, L. R. (2010) · Group Decision and Negotiation · doi:10.1007/s10726-010-9208-4 · Cited by 32
“…several authors suggest focusing the training on explaining the theory and the effects of the collaboration process, while a just-in-time support method can be used to offer procedural information during the first exercise(s) with the process (van Merrienboer et al. 2003; Kester et al. 2006).”
MethodAngeli, C., & Georgiou, K. (2023) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2022.757627 · Cited by 42
Kuldas, S., Satyen, L., Ismail, H. N., & Hashim, S. (2014) · Psychologica Belgica · doi:10.5334/pb.aw · Cited by 37
Effective Faculty Development in an Institutional Context: Designing for Transfer
Cilliers, F. J., & Tekian, A. S. (2016) · Journal of Graduate Medical Education · doi:10.4300/jgme-d-15-00117.1 · Cited by 31
Phan, H. P., Ngu, B. H., & McQueen, K. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01037 · Cited by 40
The seductive details effect in technology‐delivered instruction
Towler, A. J., Kraiger, K., Sitzmann, T., Overberghe, C. V., Cruz, J., Ronen, E., & Stewart, D. C. (2008) · Performance Improvement Quarterly · doi:10.1002/piq.20023 · Cited by 31
Education and self‐regulation of learning for gifted pupils: systemic design and development
Mooij, T. (2008) · Research Papers in Education · doi:10.1080/02671520701692551 · Cited by 31
“‘Cognitive load theory’ focuses on cognitive processing and the organisation of information using instructional designs (Paas, Renkl, and Sweller 2003; van Merriënboer, Kirschner, and Kester 2003).”
MethodThe effects of reviews in video tutorials
van der Meij, H., & van der Meij, J. (2016) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12136 · Cited by 30
A Meta-Analytic Investigation of Objective Learner Control in Web-based Instruction
Landers, R. N., & Reddock, C. M. (2016) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-016-9452-y · Cited by 34
“This places a cognitive burden on the learner to identify the cause, which many learners find difficult to navigate successfully (Morrison and Anglin 2005; van Merrienboer et al. 2003).”
BackgroundLee, Y. (2024) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-024-13129-5 · Cited by 46
“The cognitive load imposed by overly detailed responses could hinder their understanding rather than support their learning (Sweller, 1988; Sweller et al., 2011; van Merriënboer et al., 2003).”
Does Instructional Approach Matter? How Elaboration Plays a Crucial Role in Multimedia Learning
Eysink, T. H. S., & de Jong, T. (2011) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2011.611776 · Cited by 33
“In the scaffolding whole-task practice approach, learners are given extensive support and guidance at the beginning of the learning activity that is faded as more expertise is acquired (van Merriënboer, Kirschner, & Kester, 2003; van Merriënboer & Sweller, 2005).”
MethodSimple Practice Doesn’t Always Make Perfect
Booth, J. L., McGinn, K. M., Young, L. K., & Barbieri, C. (2015) · Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1177/2372732215601691 · Cited by 30
Using mimicking gestures to improve observational learning from instructional videos
Mierowsky, R., Marcus, N., & Ayres, P. (2019) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2019.1650896 · Cited by 29
Cognitive Load Theory in E-Learning
van Mierlo, C. M., Jarodzka, H., Kirschner, F., & Kirschner, P. A. (2012) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-0315-8.ch097 · Cited by 38
Self-citationClaes, J., Vanderfeesten, I., Gailly, F., Grefen, P., & Poels, G. (2015) · Information Systems Frontiers · doi:10.1007/s10796-015-9585-y · Cited by 32
“If a task requires toomuch information to be stored in working memory simultaneously, then it is advised to load the information sequentially (Bannert 2002; De Jong 2010; Gerjets et al. 2004; Paas et al. 2003a; Pithers 2002; Pollock et al. 2002; Van Merriënboer et al. 2003).”
BackgroundCognitive Load Measurement, Worked-Out Modeling, and Simulation
Josephsen, J. (2018) · Clinical Simulation in Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.ecns.2018.07.004 · Cited by 29
Idea evaluation in innovation contest platforms: A network perspective
Özaygen, A., & Balagué, C. (2018) · Decision Support Systems · doi:10.1016/j.dss.2018.06.001 · Cited by 32
Instructional Control of Cognitive Load in the Design of Complex Learning Environments
Kester, L., PAAS, F. G. W. C., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2010) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511844744.008 · Cited by 31
Self-citationAmelink, C. T., Grote, D. M., Norris, M. B., et al. (2023) · Innovative Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10755-023-09682-5 · Cited by 28
Lee, C.-C., & Tan, S. C. (2010) · Educational Media International · doi:10.1080/09523987.2010.492678 · Cited by 29
Exploring the Applicability of Simple Syntax Writing Practice for Learning Programming
Leinonen, A., Nygren, H., Pirttinen, N., Hellas, A., & Leinonen, J. (2019) · Proceedings of the 50th ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education · doi:10.1145/3287324.3287378 · Cited by 27
“From the perspective of reducing unnecessary cognitive load, supporting systems should be integrated into the environments in which students work [24].”
BackgroundThe design and testing of multimedia for teaching arithmetic to deaf learners
Techaraungrong, P., Suksakulchai, S., Kaewprapan, W., et al. (2015) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-015-9441-1 · Cited by 27
Application of the Donabedian quality assurance approach in developing an educational programme
Botma, Y., & Labuschagne, M. J. (2017) · Innovations in Education and Teaching International · doi:10.1080/14703297.2017.1378587 · Cited by 30
Taminiau, E. M. C., Kester, L., Corbalan, G., Spector, J. M., Kirschner, P. A., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2014) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12076 · Cited by 27
Self-citationEvaluation of a Web-based Teaching Module on Examination of the Hand
Averns, H., Maraschiello, M., Melle, E. V., et al. (2009) · The Journal of Rheumatology · doi:10.3899/jrheum.080761 · Cited by 26
Critical Thinking : Conceptual Perspectives and Practical Guidelines
Dwyer, C. P. (2017) · Cited by 26
How to handle knowledge uncertainty: learning and teaching in times of accelerating change
Tauritz, R. L. (2012) · Wageningen Academic Publishers eBooks · doi:10.3920/978-90-8686-757-8_19 · Cited by 26
Technical Medicine: Designing Medical Technological Solutions for Improved Health Care
Groenier, M., Pieters, J. M., & Miedema, H. A. T. (2017) · Medical Science Educator · doi:10.1007/s40670-017-0443-z · Cited by 25
“These projects aim to support development of both adaptive expertise and research-based design skills [38].”
BackgroundExpansive framing as pragmatic theory for online and hybrid instructional design
Hickey, D. T., Chartrand, G. T., & Andrews, C. D. M. (2020) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-020-09759-4 · Cited by 28
The verbal facilitation effect in learning to tie nautical knots
Huff, M., & Schwan, S. (2012) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.03.001 · Cited by 26
Swan, R. H., Plummer, K. J., & West, R. E. (2020) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-020-09778-1 · Cited by 27
Learner and information characteristics in the design of powerful learning environments
PAAS, F. G. W. C., & Kester, L. (2006) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1244 · Cited by 27
Self-citationHuk, T., & Steinke, M. (2007) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2006.10.004 · Cited by 29
Pianta, R. C. (2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy415 · Cited by 27
Melo, M., & Miranda, G. L. (2015) · Journal of Information Technology Education Research · doi:10.28945/2281 · Cited by 29
Construction of a digital learning environment based on cloud computing
Ding, J., Xiong, C., & Liu, H. (2014) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12208 · Cited by 29
Emurian, H. H., Holden, H. K., & Abarbanel, R. A. (2007) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2007.02.007 · Cited by 24
Huh, Y., & Reigeluth, C. M. (2017) · Journal of Educational Technology Systems · doi:10.1177/0047239517710769 · Cited by 27
“Also, if there are recurrent aspects of performance, such as iterative goal setting and strategy selection in the performing phase, additional part-task practice can be applied and examined in the context of whole learning tasks (van Merriënboer et al., 2002; van Merriënboer et al., 2003).”
BackgroundLarmuseau, C., Evens, M., Elen, J., Noortgate, W. V. D., Desmet, P., & Depaepe, F. (2018) · Journal of Computers in Education · doi:10.1007/s40692-018-0098-9 · Cited by 25
“The 4C/ID model intends to facilitate complex learning (van Merrie¨nboer et al. 2003); therefore, the instructional design of the virtual learning environment was based on the 4C/ID model.”
MethodADAPTIT: Tools for training design and evaluation
Croock, M. B. M. D., PAAS, F. G. W. C., Schlandbusch, H., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2002) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02504984 · Cited by 24
Self-citationDynamics of cognitive load theory: A model-based approach
Sawicka, A. (2007) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2007.03.007 · Cited by 25
“While the assumed allocation scheme seems to be suggested by a number of CLT researchers (see e.g., Gerjets & Scheiter, 2003; Kester et al., 2006; Paas et al., 2003a; Renkl, Atkinson, & Große, 2004; Sweller et al., 1998; van Merriënboer, Schuurman, de Croock, & Paas, 2002), further research is needed.”
BackgroundInfluentialSuperfine, A., & Bragelman, J. (2018) · EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education · doi:10.29333/ejmste/99501 · Cited by 22
“Videos were grouped by scaffold level as each scaffold supported PSTs’ noticing at different levels and would impact intrinsic load of the videos (van Merriënboer et al., 2003).”
MethodThe Expertise Reversal Principle in Multimedia Learning
Kalyuga, S. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108894333.017 · Cited by 28
Enfield, J., Myers, R. D., Lara, M., et al. (2011) · Simulation & Gaming · doi:10.1177/1046878111408024 · Cited by 23
“This instructional support is currently being designed and developed and follows Van Merriënboer’s 4C/ID model (Van Merriënboer, Kirschner, & Kester, 2007) for complex learning.”
MethodLee, S. J., & Branch, R. M. (2017) · Innovations in Education and Teaching International · doi:10.1080/14703297.2017.1285716 · Cited by 23
Emotions and assessment: considerations for rater‐based judgements of entrustment
Gomez-Garibello, C. A., & Young, M. E. (2017) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/medu.13476 · Cited by 25
Developing a Framework for Research on Personal Learning Environments
Kop, R., & Fournier, H. (2013) · E-learning papers · Cited by 23
Effects of worked examples on step performance in solving complex problems
Chen, O., Retnowati, E., & Kalyuga, S. (2018) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2018.1515891 · Cited by 24
A Learning Theory for 21st-Century Students
Sontag, M. (2009) · NSUWorks (Nova Southeastern University) · Cited by 23
A Problem‐Based Learning Approach to Integrating Foreign Language Into Engineering
Neville, D. O., & Britt, D. W. (2007) · Foreign Language Annals · doi:10.1111/j.1944-9720.2007.tb03199.x · Cited by 24
The Effects of Student Question-Generation with Online Prompts on Learning
Yu, F. Y., & Pan, K. J. (2014) · Cited by 23
Effect of experience and mode of presentation on problem solving
Williams, D., & Noyes, J. (2004) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2004.10.011 · Cited by 24
E‐Learning and Blended Learning in Chemistry Education
Seery, M. K., & O’Connor, C. M. (2015) · 化学と教育 · doi:10.1002/9783527679300.ch26 · Cited by 23
Training adult novices to use computers: Effects of different types of illustrations
Kehoe, E., Bednall, T., Yin, L., Olsen, K. N., Pitts, C., Henry, J., & Bailey, P. E. (2009) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.12.005 · Cited by 22
Small-group learning in undergraduate STEM disciplines: effect of group type on student achievement
Micari, M., Pazos, P., Streitwieser, B. T., & Light, G. J. (2010) · Educational Research and Evaluation · doi:10.1080/13803611.2010.520860 · Cited by 22
Neurophysiological correlates in interface design: An HCI perspective
Mach, Q. H., Hunter, M. D., & Grewal, R. S. (2009) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2009.11.008 · Cited by 22
Networked learning: design considerations for online instructors
Czerkawski, B. C. (2015) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2015.1057744 · Cited by 27
Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment: What Open Source Has to Offer
Antonenko, P., Toy, S., & Niederhauser, D. S. (2005) · Cited by 22
Teaching the novice programmer: A study of instructional sequences and perception
Kranch, D. A. (2011) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-011-9158-8 · Cited by 24
“Such a whole task approach advocates teaching from the beginning all the knowledge and skills required to complete the task rather than introducing concepts individually and amalgamating them toward the end of instruction (van Merriënboer et al. 2003).”
BackgroundCharacteristics of a cognitive tool that helps students learn diagnostic problem solving
Danielson, J. A., Mills, E. M., Vermeer, P. J., Preast, V. A., Young, K. M., Christopher, M. M., George, J. W., Wood, R. D., & Bender, H. S. (2006) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-006-9003-8 · Cited by 22
Contextual learning theory: Concrete form and a software prototype to improve early education
Mooij, T. (2005) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2005.01.002 · Cited by 22
Jurinovich, S., & Domenici, V. (2022) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.1c01015 · Cited by 21
Revisiting the debate on germane cognitive load versus germane resources
Greenberg, K., & Zheng, R. Z. (2022) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2022.2159416 · Cited by 28
“Research has demonstrated the benefits of completion problems in terms of alleviating cognitive load and evoking participants’ engagement in learning (Gupta & Zheng, 2020; van Merriënboer et al., 2003).”
BackgroundInteractive Multimedia Module with Pedagogical Agents: Formative Evaluation
Lee, T. T., & Osman, K. (2012) · International Education Studies · doi:10.5539/ies.v5n6p50 · Cited by 21
Hazen, A. C. M., GROOT, E. D., de Gier, H., et al. (2018) · Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning · doi:10.1016/j.cptl.2018.01.006 · Cited by 21
Huang, S.-K., Chen, C., Wu, W.-S., & Chen, W. (2015) · Educational Technology & Society · Cited by 21
Effects of systemic complexity factors on task difficulty in a stock management game
Özgün, O., & Barlas, Y. (2015) · System Dynamics Review · doi:10.1002/sdr.1543 · Cited by 21
The Role of Task Complexity and Task Sequencing in L2 Monologic Oral Production
Malicka, A. (2014) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) · Cited by 21
The Role of Self‐Directed Learning in PBL
Ge, X., & Chua, B. L. (2019) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119173243.ch16 · Cited by 23
Durning, S. J., LaRochelle, J. S., Pangaro, L. N., et al. (2012) · Teaching and Learning in Medicine · doi:10.1080/10401334.2012.664991 · Cited by 20
Roda, C., & Nabeth, T. (2007) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-75195-3_20 · Cited by 21
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“While perhaps appearing to be somewhat superficial as a means of generating learning motivation structures frequently and easily converts to more intrinsically motivated student involvement (van Merrienboer et al., 2003).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- van Merrienboer, J. J. G., Kirschner, P. A., & Kester, L.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- ORCID
- Kirschner, Paul A.
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2003-01-01
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 5-13
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W2127791224
- Semantic Scholar
- 5672feb8343dabd71bddf54a434d641ca7a5b7b8
- Cited by
- 857
- References
- 89
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 51 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 33 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 36 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 41 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 45 · 2015: 48 · 2014: 44 · 2013: 43 · 2012: 42
- FWCI
- 39.13
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- complex learning, cognitive load theory, scaffolding, instructional design, authentic learning tasks, transfer of learning, design model
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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