The DOI matches its Crossref record; 63 of the 89 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 5 of the 48 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning
Open accessAbstract
Complex learning aims at the integration of knowledge, skills, and attitudes; the coordination of qualitatively different constituent skills; and the transfer of what is learned to daily life or work settings. Recent instructional theories stress authentic learning tasks as the driving force for learning; but due to the complexity of those tasks, learning may be hampered by the limited processing capacity of the human mind. In this article we present a framework for scaffolding practice and just-in-time information presentation, aiming to control cognitive load effectively. We briefly describe a design model for complex learning consistent with cognitive load theory. Theoretical and practical implications of the presented framework are discussed.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This conceptual article argues that authentic whole-task learning can overwhelm working memory, so instruction should manage cognitive load through scaffolding and timely information. It proposes simple-to-complex task classes, alternative task formats, and just-in-time supportive and procedural information within a four-component design model.
Key findings
- Whole-task sequencing should start with the simplest authentic versions of a task and move through task classes of increasing complexity; simpler classes impose lower intrinsic load and should fall within learners’ proximal development.
- Within a task class, support should fade from worked-out examples to completion, goal-free, or reverse tasks, and finally to conventional problems; these alternatives reduce extraneous load compared with conventional problem solving.
- Supportive information for nonrecurrent aspects should be presented before a task class and elaborated, while procedural information for recurrent aspects should be presented during practice and integrated with the task environment to avoid split attention.
- The 4C/ID model consists of learning tasks, supportive information, procedural information, and part-task practice; part-task practice is reserved for recurrent aspects requiring high automaticity after they have been introduced in whole tasks.
Methods
- Conceptual/theoretical paper, not an empirical study; no sample, data collection, or statistical analysis is reported.
- Synthesizes cognitive load theory and instructional design literature to derive guidelines and a design model for complex learning.
- Uses narrative argument and illustrative examples, such as a literature-search task and a table of task types, rather than original quantitative results.
Limitations
- The authors state the overview is incomplete and note that they are unaware of empirical research relating process-oriented support to cognitive load.
- The authors state the framework focuses on reducing intrinsic and extraneous load as a means to free processing resources, and that explicit methods to increase germane load may be needed; they also note that cognitive load theory alone is insufficient for a full instructional design model.
- Evident from the text: no original empirical test, effect sizes, or new data are presented, so the claims rest on prior studies and conceptual consistency.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
5 of 48 cited sources checked · 3 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Indeed, many experiments supported the counterintuitive prediction that studying worked-out examples facilitates schema construction and transfer performance more than actually solving the equivalent problems does (van Gerven, Paas, van Merriënboer, & Schmidt, 2002; also see Sweller et al., 1998, for an overview).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Types of Learning Tasks
What the sources say
- Supportedcites van Gerven, Paas, van Merriënboer, & Schmidt, 2002 source
Section 4 states that worked examples are more likely than conventional problems to support schema construction and that numerous studies found superior performance and transfer. The Discussion says this paper's own experiment did not find a significant performance advantage, but the cited claim concerns the broader experimental literature the paper reports. (LLM, conf=0.90)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sweller et al., 1998 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Simultaneously performing the tasks and studying the information would almost certainly cause cognitive overload (Kester et al., 2001;Marcus, Cooper, & Sweller, 1996).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Supportive Information
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Kester et al., 2001 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Section 2 recommends presenting supportive information before task clusters, and section 2.1 explains that working-memory capacity is limited. These passages support separating study of supportive information from task performance, but they do not say that doing both simultaneously would almost certainly cause cognitive overload. The Discussion (section 6) calls the preferred timing an assumption needing further support. (LLM, conf=0.82)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Marcus, Cooper, & Sweller, 1996 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The second is called procedural information and is best presented precisely when it is needed during task performance; it pertains to the how-to instructions for the application of rules (Kester, Kirschner, van Merriënboer, & Baumer, 2001).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > JUST-IN-TIME INFORMATION PRESENTATION
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Kester, Kirschner, van Merriënboer, & Baumer, 2001 source
Section 2.1 states that prerequisite information is best presented during practice, when learners need it. Section 4.2.5 includes procedures for operating the system among that prerequisite information, supporting the citing sentence’s description of procedural how-to information. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For subsequent task classes, only new (additional) supportive information should be presented-extending the set of interacting elements (Pollock et al., 2002).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Supportive Information
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Pollock et al., 2002 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The paper describes a progression from isolated elements to learning their interactions in a second phase (Abstract; Results and Discussion). But it says that the second phase presented all the information needed for understanding, not only new or additional information. It does not prescribe this rule for subsequent task classes. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such embedded support is clearly more effective than nonintegrated support (i.e., the parent running alongside and shouting”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > SCAFFOLDING WHOLE-TASK PRACTICE
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Excessive or insufficient support can hamper the learning process.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We conclude that CLT offers useful guidelines for decreasing intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load, so that sufficient processing capacity is left for genuine learning.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
In the paper
“Since then, there has been accumulating evidence that both part-task approaches to sequencing and instructional design models driven by separate objectives do not work well for complex performances that require the integration of skills, knowledge, and attitudes and the extensive coordination of constituent skills in new problem situations (see van Merriënboer, 1997, for a complete discussion).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites van Merriënboer, 1997
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novice learners, learning and performing conventional tasks are different and incompatible processes.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Types of Learning Tasks
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“But Naylor and Briggs (1963) already indicated in the early 1960s that they are not very suitable for learning complex tasks requiring much coordination between their distinct parts or constituent skills.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Naylor and Briggs (1963) source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Each new task class contains learning tasks that are in the zone of proximal development of the learners (Vygotsky, 1934(Vygotsky, /1987)).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Vygotsky, 1934/1987
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Not matched
- It may state two separate claims as one. 13
- Probably not a substantial claim. 17
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Less elements and interactions between elements need to be processed simultaneously in working memory when performing the tasks in simpler task classes; for more complex task classes, the number of elements and interactions between elements increases (cf.Pollock, Chandler, & Sweller, 2002).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Pollock, Chandler, & Sweller, 2002 source
The Results and Discussion passage says complex material involves more interacting elements than working memory can process simultaneously unless they are incorporated into a schema. The passage on sources of cognitive load also describes a continuum from few elements with low interactivity to many elements with high interactivity, supporting the simpler-versus-more-complex comparison. (LLM, conf=0.92)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
- Supported
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“CLT emphasizes the need to integrate support for novice learners with the task environment fully; otherwise, split-attention effects increase extraneous cognitive load because learners have to integrate information mentally from the task environment with the given support (Chandler & Sweller, 1992;Sweller & Chandler, 1994).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > SCAFFOLDING WHOLE-TASK PRACTICE
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
In the paper
“There is overwhelming evidence that such conventional tasks are exceptionally expensive in terms of working memory capacity.They cause high-extraneous cognitive load due to the use of weak problem-solving methods (e.g., means-ends analysis), which bear little relation to schema construction processes that are concerned with learning to recognize problem states and their associated actions (Sweller”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Types of Learning Tasks
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sweller, 1988 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For information with a high-intrinsic complexity, it seems advisable to present the information before the learners start on the learning tasks.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > JUST-IN-TIME INFORMATION PRESENTATION
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Part-task approaches to sequencing are highly effective to prevent cognitive overload because the load associated with a part of the task is lower than the load associated with the whole task.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This necessary information must be active in working memory when performing the task to guide or influence behavior.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > JUST-IN-TIME INFORMATION PRESENTATION
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Goal-free tasks present the learner with a highly aspecific goal, which eliminates the need for means-ends search and so decreases extraneous cognitive load (Paas, Camp, & Rikers, 2001; also see Sweller et al., 1998, for an overview).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Types of Learning Tasks
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whole-task approaches attend to the coordination and integration of constituent skills from the very beginning, and they stress that learners quickly develop a holistic vision of the whole task that is gradually embellished during the training.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Recent instructional theories stress authentic learning tasks as the driving force for learning; but due to the complexity of those tasks, learning may be hampered by the limited processing capacity of the human mind.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“Recent instructional theories tend to focus on authentic learning tasks that are based on real-life tasks as the driving force for learning (Merrill, 2002;Reigeluth, 1999a;van Merriënboer & Kirschner, 2001).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
In the paper
“Fading is also important because the positive effects found for worked-out examples may reverse as learners acquire more expertise: If the necessary schemas for solving a problem are already available, analyzing a redundant worked-out example and integrating it with previously acquired schemas in working memory may impose higher cognitive load than problem solving (see Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, &”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Types of Learning Tasks
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it is critical to prevent split-attention effects when presenting this information.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Procedural Information
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The supportive information is presented in a just-in-time fashion to work on the nonrecurrent aspects of learning tasks within the same task class”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The learning tasks within the same task class are equivalent in the sense that they may be performed on the basis of the same general knowledge (i.e., mental models and cognitive strategies that allow one to perform a version of the task with a particular complexity).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The procedural information, in contrast, is presented just in time to perform the consistent, recurrent aspects of the learning tasks”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Supportive information may be helpful in performing the nonrecurrent aspects of learning tasks.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Procedural Information
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“each task class starts with one or more learning tasks with a high level of embedded support (e.g., worked-out examples), continues with learning tasks with a lower level of support (e.g., completion, goal-free, or reverse tasks), and ends with conventional tasks without support.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It preferably takes the form of direct, step-by-step, or how-to instruction and is quickly faded away for subsequent learning tasks.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For each subsequent task class, additional supportive information is presented to enable the learners to perform the more complex version of the whole task.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These learning tasks will typically be performed by the learners in a simulated or real task environment and, ideally, confront them with all constituent skills that make up the whole complex skill.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the cognitive load imposed by instructional designs should be the preeminent consideration when determining design structures.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > DISCUSSION
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Rests on an assumption: Limited working memory is the most central aspect of human cognitive architecture.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For those aspects, additional part-task practice may be provided-such as children drilling multiplication tables or musicians practicing musical scales.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“when learners have enough expertise, procedural information will become redundant and should thus be removed to decrease extraneous cognitive load (Kalyuga et al.,1998).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Procedural Information
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kalyuga et al.,1998 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Elaboration of the procedural information beforehand has no added value whatsoever; therefore, it is preferably presented precisely when learners need it.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Procedural Information
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The supportive information for each subsequent task class is an addition to or an embellishment of previous information-allowing learners to do things they could not do before.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Supportive Information
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This process of induction is important for constructing new knowledge and, especially, for adapting existing schemas to make them more appropriate to the given experiences (Holland, Holyoak, Nisbett, & Thagard, 1986).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Supportive Information
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Holland, Holyoak, Nisbett, & Thagard, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This four-component instructional design model (referred to hereafter as the 4C/ID model) presupposes that well-designed learning environments for complex learning always consist of four components: (a) learning tasks, (b) supportive information, (c) procedural information, and (d) part-task practice.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is repeated for each subsequent task class, yielding a saw-tooth pattern of support throughout the whole training program.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“They are highly domain specific and allow only for the same use of the same knowledge for performing recurrent aspects of tasks.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Procedural Information
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Anderson, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Anderson, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Newell, 1991
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The authors state this as an assumption.
Authentic learning tasks help learners integrate knowledge, skills, and attitudes; coordinate constituent skills; and transfer what is learned to daily life or work settings.
“The general assumption is that such tasks help learners to integrate the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary for effective task performance; give them the opportunity to learn to coordinate constituent skills that make up complex task performance; and eventually enable them to transfer what is learned to their daily life or work settings.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The human mind has limited processing capacity.
“due to the complexity of those tasks, learning may be hampered by the limited processing capacity of the human mind.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Excessive or insufficient support can hamper the learning process.
“Because excessive or insufficient support can hamper the learning process, it is critical to determine the right type and amount of support and to fade at the appropriate time and rate.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Recent instructional theories tend to focus on real-life tasks as the driving force for learning.
“This article started from the observation that recent instructional theories tend to focus on real-life tasks as the driving force for learning.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Limited working memory is the most central aspect of human cognitive architecture.
“limited working memory is no doubt the most central aspect of human cognitive architecture.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Real-life tasks are typically associated with a very high cognitive load.
“Such tasks are typically associated with a very high-cognitive load”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Certain authors have suggested, for example, that the learner's cognitive load is reduced with the aid of scaffolding and that this thus allows the learner to perform parts of a task that he or she would otherwise not be able to perform”
From Scaffolding in Teacher–Student Interaction: A Decade of Research (2010) · cites this paper as Van Merriënboer et al. 2003
In the citing paper
“For the automation of schemas, compilation and strengthening are the most relevant cognitive processes (Anderson 2000;Van Merriënboer 1997;Van Merriënboer et al. 2003).”
From Interactivity in Video-based Models (2007) · cites this paper as Van Merriënboer et al. 2003
In the citing paper
“To construct adequate schemas two types of cognitive processes are important; elaboration and induction (Van Merriënboer 1997;Van Merriënboer et al. 2003).”
From Interactivity in Video-based Models (2007) · cites this paper as Van Merriënboer et al. 2003
Citations
Cites
The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.
Miller, G. A. (1994) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.101.2.343 · Cited by 17,559
Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning
Sweller, J. (1988) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7 · Cited by 11,048
Axten, N., Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1973) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2063712 · Cited by 6,886
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“29,45 Telesonography, while more resource-intensive, may be able to provide the best of both worlds by allowing participants to learn POCUS completely remotely but also facilitate hands-on practice.”
BackgroundLearners in a Changing Learning Landscape: Reflections from an Instructional Design Perspective
van Merriänboer, J. J. G., & Slavi Stoyanov, A. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-8299-3_4 · Cited by 19
Self-citationUnpacking the Complexity of Linear Equations from a Cognitive Load Theory Perspective
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Organized simultaneous displays facilitate learning of complex natural science categories
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Navigating the complex cognitive task of classroom assessment
Fives, H., & Barnes, N. (2020) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2020.103063 · Cited by 19
Ong, C. P., & Tasir, Z. (2015) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-015-9383-8 · Cited by 21
“…modules may provide procedural explanations and emphasise the contents to be learned using multiple representations, but these rich learning tasks have often risked being excessive and so may hamper learning (van Merrienboer 2007; van Merrienboer and Kester 2007; van Merrienboer et al. 2003).”
BackgroundDurning, S. J. (2011) · Research Publications (Maastricht University) · doi:10.26481/dis.20110909sd · Cited by 19
Jameson, M. M. (2019) · Adult Education Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0741713619896324 · Cited by 24
“This aligns with female adult learners’ need for mathematics material to be taught at a slower pace, and research indicates that this approach reduces cognitive load, making it more likely that new information is accurately encoded and retained (van Merrienboer et al., 2003).”
BackgroundDavis, A. L., Pecaric, M. R., Pusic, M. V., Smith, T. D., Shouldice, M., Brown, J. F., Wynter, S.-A., Legano, L. A., Kondrich, J., & Boutis, K. (2020) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104379 · Cited by 18
Effects of a Dual-Approach Instruction on Students’ Science Achievement and Motivation
Kadir, M. S., Yeung, A. S., Ryan, R. M., Forbes, A., & Diallo, T. (2018) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-018-9449-3 · Cited by 25
Gjicali, K., Finn, B., & Hebert, D. (2020) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103959 · Cited by 22
Subramani, M., Wagle, M., Ray, G., & Gupta, A. (2021) · MIS Quarterly · doi:10.25300/misq/2021/15635 · Cited by 22
E-learning with multiple-try-feedback: Can hints foster students’ achievement during the semester?
Schwerter, J., Wortha, F., & Gerjets, P. H. (2022) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-022-10105-z · Cited by 20
“…feedback messages served as supportive information during practice, which is particularly effective for novice learners who are still acquiring schemata to solve the statistical problems at hand (e.g., by preventing cognitive overload; van Merriënboer et al., 2002; van Merriënboer et al., 2003).”
Sweller, J., Ayres, P., & Kalyuga, S. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-8126-4_13 · Cited by 19
Busstra, M. C., Hårtog, R. J. M., Kersten, S., & Müller, M. M. (2007) · AJP Advances in Physiology Education · doi:10.1152/advan.00090.2006 · Cited by 18
An online support system to scaffold real-world problem solving
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Varadarajan, S., & Ladage, S. (2024) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.3c01335 · Cited by 18
Impact of Increased Authenticity in Instructional Format on Preclerkship Students’ Performance
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“The timely appearance and disappearance of the arrow cues did not create extra distractions but instead induced greater learning effectiveness (Kester et al., 2004b; Van Merri € enboer et al., 2003).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialDesign Science and Co-Designing of Hybrid Workplaces
Lahti, M., & Nenonen, S. (2021) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings11030129 · Cited by 18
“[9] have noted a similar concept called authentic learning, where real life tasks are the driving force of the learning.”
BackgroundHarnessing Technology in Chemistry Education
Seery, M. K. (2013) · New Directions in the Teaching of Physical Sciences · doi:10.11120/ndir.2013.00002 · Cited by 17
Coderre, S., Anderson, J. T., Rikers, R. M. J. P., Dunckley, P., Holbrook, K., & McLaughlin, K. (2010) · Canadian Journal of Gastroenterology · doi:10.1155/2010/398469 · Cited by 17
“Can J Gastroenterol Vol 24 No 12 December 2010 731 for complex procedures integrating knowledge, skills and attitude (38).”
BackgroundThe design and effect of automated directions during scenario-based training
Peeters, M. M. M., den Bosch, K. V., Meyer, J. C., & Neerincx, M. A. (2013) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2013.07.039 · Cited by 17
“SBT is a training method directed at the preparation of future professionals to perform complex tasks, such as fire fighting, first aid, military missions, medicine, etc. Complex skill development calls for training methods that (1) integrate all of the constituent skills, knowledge and attitudes, (2) stimulate the tr…”
BackgroundLee, T. T. H., & So, W. M. W. (2014) · European Journal of Special Needs Education · doi:10.1080/08856257.2014.986907 · Cited by 19
Pedagogic Benchmarks for Information and Communications Technology in Teacher Education
Boshuizen, H. P. A., & Wopereis, I. G. J. H. (2003) · Technology Pedagogy and Education · doi:10.1080/14759390300200150 · Cited by 17
“…on one occasion can be applied in another, provided that measures are taken to help students to differentiate between relevant and irrelevant context and develop a deeper insight into underlying principles and conditions for application (Perkins & Salomon, 1988; Van Merriënboer et al, 2003).”
BackgroundLearning to diagnose using patient video cases in paediatrics : perceptive and cognitive processes
Balslev, T. (2011) · Research Publications (Maastricht University) · doi:10.26481/dis.20111124tb · Cited by 17
Cai, Y., Peng, X., & Ge, Q. (2024) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-024-10580-1 · Cited by 21
“This finding is also compatible with CLT contentions that higher cognitive load levels can undermine students’ learning performance (Van Merriënboer et al., 2003).”
Card Lab: An Educational Game to Support Chemistry Laboratory Learning
Li, L., & He, T. (2022) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.2c00632 · Cited by 22
Reducing Cognitive Load While Teaching Complex Instruction to Occupational Therapy Students
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Addressing cognitive load in the computer science classroom
Sands, P. (2019) · ACM Inroads · doi:10.1145/3210577 · Cited by 16
“One approach is the development of scaffolds—level-appropriate supports—that reduce the load on the student as they engage with a learning task [20].”
BackgroundAkaygün, S., & Jones, L. L. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4366-3_13 · Cited by 17
Mental load: helping clinical learners
White, G. (2011) · The Clinical Teacher · doi:10.1111/j.1743-498x.2011.00458.x · Cited by 16
“Anything that causes the learner to divert their mental processing away from this movement of information applies a cognitive ‘load’ that narrows the bottleneck and reduces its flow (Figure 2).(2)”
Development of vignettes for learning and professional development
Leicher, V., & Mulder, R. H. (2016) · Gerontology & Geriatrics Education · doi:10.1080/02701960.2016.1247065 · Cited by 34
Lange, C. H., & Costley, J. (2018) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12269 · Cited by 18
Pedagogy of Training in Information and Communications Technology for Teachers and Beyond
Boshuizen, H. P. A., & Wopereis, I. G. J. H. (2003) · Cited by 16
van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118736494.ch2 · Cited by 16
Self-citationKim, S., Park, H., & Lim, R. E. (2024) · Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing · doi:10.1108/jrim-01-2024-0015 · Cited by 16
Jimmy Zambrano, R., Kirschner, F., Sweller, J., & Kirschner, P. A. (2023) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12603 · Cited by 21
Self-citationNutrient analysis explained for non-chemists by using interactive e-learning material
Busstra, M. C., Hulshof, P. J. M., Houwen, J., Elburg, L., & Hollman, P. C. H. (2011) · Journal of Food Composition and Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.jfca.2011.07.003 · Cited by 15
Language-Learner Computer Interactions
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Sarmouk, C., Ingram, M. J., Read, C., et al. (2019) · Innovations in Education and Teaching International · doi:10.1080/14703297.2019.1604247 · Cited by 15
Teaching double-entry accounting: A simplified scaffolded technique based on cognitive load theory
Zhou, Y., & Lamberton, G. (2020) · Journal of Education for Business · doi:10.1080/08832323.2020.1848771 · Cited by 20
“Scaffolding is ideally suited to the management of cognitive load where learners are overwhelmed by task complexity (van Merrienboer et al., 2003, p. 5).”
BackgroundBotma, Y., & Nyoni, C. N. (2015) · Journal of Nursing Education and Practice · doi:10.5430/jnep.v5n6p1 · Cited by 15
“This principle is based on moving in general from a known system to the unknown, the simple to complex maxim, and providing information when needed.[9] In the current study, the design of the outcomes adapted and adopted from the prototypical curriculum from the ICM meant that the educators graded the outcomes at thei…”
MethodWikis for group work: Encouraging transparency, benchmarking, and feedback
Abdekhodaee, A. H., Chase, A., & Ross, B. (2016) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.2829 · Cited by 15
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Learning software-maintenance tasks in offshoring projects: a cognitive-load perspective
Krancher, O., & Dibbern, J. (2012) · Bern Open Repository and Information System (University of Bern) · doi:10.7892/boris.39356 · Cited by 19
“Supportive information enables the learner to construct schemas that can be used when working on learning tasks (Van Merriënboer et al. 2003).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe Distributed Practice Effect on Classroom Learning: A Meta-Analytic Review of Applied Research
Mawson, R. D., & Kang, S. H. K. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15060771 · Cited by 14
Cognitive Load Assessment Scales in Simulation
Greer, S. K., Jeffe, D. B., Manga, A., Murray, D. J., & Emke, A. R. (2022) · Simulation in Healthcare The Journal of the Society for Simulation in Healthcare · doi:10.1097/sih.0000000000000665 · Cited by 16
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Teaching research skills for experimental physics in an undergraduate electronics lab
Narayanan, S., Sarin, P., Pawar, N., & Murthy, S. (2023) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.19.020103 · Cited by 17
Christodoulou, P., & Papanikolaou, A. (2023) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci13121187 · Cited by 14
Scaffolding in teacher-student interaction
Beishuizen, J. J., Volman, M. L. L., & van de Pol, J. (2007) · Cited by 14
DeVaughn, P., & Stefaniak, J. E. (2020) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-020-09823-z · Cited by 16
Teaching of experimental design skills: results from a longitudinal study
Szalay, L., Tóth, Z., & Borbás, R. (2021) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/d0rp00338g · Cited by 20
Krancher, O., & Dibbern, J. (2015) · Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS) · doi:10.1109/hicss.2015.528 · Cited by 17
“Table 2 shows the result of two fixed-effects models that regress cognitive load on experience in different knowledge domains, and on controls established in cognitive load theory [26, 32, 34].”
BackgroundKaktiņš, L. (2018) · Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice · doi:10.53761/1.15.1.5 · Cited by 14
Exploring Short-Term Training Effects of Ecological Interfaces: A Case Study in Air Traffic Control
Borst, C., Visser, R., van Paassen, M. V., & Mulder, M. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems · doi:10.1109/thms.2019.2919742 · Cited by 16
Audience Response Systems Reimagined
Mader, S., & Bry, F. (2019) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-35758-0_19 · Cited by 14
Instructional Design Models for Online Instruction: From the Perspective of Iranian Higher Education
Khodabandelou, R., & Samah, S. A. A. (2012) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.11.359 · Cited by 13
The interaction of drill and practice and error training with individual differences
Kluge, A., Ritzmann, S., Burkolter, D., & Sauer, J. (2010) · Cognition Technology & Work · doi:10.1007/s10111-010-0158-z · Cited by 15
“…briefly introduced above, practice in terms of ‘‘worked examples’’ and ‘‘parttask practice’’ is strongly proposed e.g., by van Gog et al. (2008) or van Merrienboer et al. (2003) to effectively support schema construction and automation in the initial, novice phase of skill acquisition (van…”
BackgroundDidactic and technical considerations when developing e-learning and CME
Pas, E. T., Waard, M. W., Blok, B. S., Pouw, H., & van Dijk, N. (2014) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-014-9364-2 · Cited by 13
“But it also acknowledges the importance of controlling the cognitive load in which scaffolding is an important factor (van Merrienboer et al. 2003).”
BackgroundBarclay, E. J., Renshaw, C. E., Taylor, H. A., et al. (2011) · Journal of Geoscience Education · doi:10.5408/1.3543933 · Cited by 13
“…formats maximizes their use of working memory resources, thus appearing to increase the flexibility of a learner’s experience and to be particularly effective at freeing up cognitive resources for deeper information processing (Pai-vio, 1990; Pass et al ., 2003; Van Merrie¨nboer et al ., 2003).”
BackgroundSun, N., Anand, P. A., & Snell, L. S. (2016) · Journal of Simulation · doi:10.1057/s41273-016-0001-5 · Cited by 15
“Two types of information can be provided to the learners: ‘procedural information [… pertaining] to the how-to instructions for the application of rules’ and ‘supportive information [… pertaining] to the knowledge necessary for problem solving and reasoning’ (Van Merriënboer et al, 2003a, b).”
BackgroundInfluentialForschendes Lernen in der Biologie
Bruckermann, T., Arnold, J. C., Kremer, K., & Schlüter, K. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-53308-6_2 · Cited by 19
Zander, S., Wetzel, S., Kühl, T., & Bertel, S. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02202 · Cited by 13
“According to the Cognitive Load Theory (CLT; Chandler and Sweller, 1991; Paas et al., 2003; Sweller, 2005), optimal computer-based learning material induces as low a cognitive load (CL) as possible to enable learners to use their free cognitive resources to process important information (Mayer and Moreno, 2003; Van Me…”
BackgroundAn Adaptive Instructional Architecture for Training and Education
Nicholson, D. M., Fidopiastis, C., Davis, L., et al. (2007) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-73216-7_43 · Cited by 13
“Increases in cognitive load imposed by complex learning environments may not leave enough processing capacity for appropriate levels of learning to occur [8].”
BackgroundInnovatief onderwijs ontwerpen; via leertaken naar complexe vaardigheden
Janssen-Noordman, A. M. B., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., van der Vleuten, C. P. M., & Scherpbier, A. J. J. A. (2003) · Tijdschrift voor Medisch Onderwijs · doi:10.1007/bf03056610 · Cited by 13
Self-citationKern, C. L., & Crippen, K. J. (2016) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-016-9649-x · Cited by 12
“Though empirical research supports the general strategy of scaffolding (e.g., van Merrie¨nboer et al. 2003), in situ research involving specific forms of scaffolding in a technology-enhanced secondary science classroom setting is lacking.”
BackgroundTiming of information presentation and the acquisition of complex skills
Kester, L. (2003) · DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) · Cited by 13
Self-citationExploring Multimodal Generative AI for Education through Co-design Workshops with Students
Prasad, P., Balse, R., & Balchandani, D. (2025) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3706598.3714146 · Cited by 20
“…in learning sciences and situate our findings in four key dimensions of learning environment design - (1) creating and organizing the domain model [7, 58], (2) understanding the learner [15, 38], (3) scaffolding and feedback [22, 43, 44, 52, 54], and (4) reflection and metacognition [14, 39, 62].”
Instructional and Assessment Redesign of a Sterile Compounding Course Using Immersive Simulation
Monestime, S., Thomas, D., Hooper, C. D., et al. (2020) · American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education · doi:10.5688/ajpe7473 · Cited by 12
“By contrast, professional judgment exercises (ie, compatibility, literature evaluation) were successfully taught using a whole task scaffolding model that allowed learners to gain competency through exposure to increasingly difficult cases with decreasing instructor guidance.(13) Lastly, the addition of immersive simu…”
Barr, N. B., & Johnson, J. E. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication · doi:10.1109/tpc.2021.3057149 · Cited by 15
Lämsä, J., Mannonen, J., Tuhkala, A., Heilala, V., Helovuo, A., Tynkkynen, I., Lampi, E., Sipiläinen, K., Kärkkäinen, T., & Hämäläinen, R. (2023) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12817 · Cited by 14
Designing a Blended Course in Android App Development using 4C/ID
Marcellis, M., Barendsen, E., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2018) · Koli Calling International Conference on Computing Education Research · doi:10.1145/3279720.3279739 · Cited by 12
“A complicating factor is that applying CLT frees up resources but does not automatically ensure that freed resources are devoted to learning [22].”
BackgroundSelf-citationKuldas, S., Hashim, S., Ismail, H. N., & Bakar, Z. A. (2015) · International Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.17583/ijep.2015.832 · Cited by 12
“On the contrary, Van Merriënboer, Kirschner, and Kester (2003) argued that ICL is controllable; a way of the manipulation is to sequence the interacting elements in a simple-to-complex order, preventing learners from experiencing the full complexity of the interaction at the outset.”
Critical Task Characteristics in Problem-Based Learning
Otting, H., & Zwaal, W. (2006) · Industry and Higher Education · doi:10.5367/000000006778702283 · Cited by 12
“Van Merriënboer et al (2003) point to the risk that authentic learning tasks in constructivist learning environments, such as PBL, may confront novice learners with cognitive overload.”
BackgroundThe Evaluation of Argument Mapping as a Learning Tool
Dwyer, C. P. (2011) · Arrow@dit (Dublin Institute of Technology) · doi:10.13025/16650 · Cited by 15
Tai, H., Lin, M., & Chen, Y. (2025) · International Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1111/ijal.12777 · Cited by 23
Mills, J. J. (2016) · UKnowledge (University of Kentucky) · doi:10.13023/etd.2016.069 · Cited by 13
Krumphals, I., & Haagen‐Schützenhöfer, C. (2021) · Eurasia Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education · doi:10.29333/ejmste/10898 · Cited by 11
“Especially when integrating a video imitating a real-world task in a 6 / 18 learning environment, the issue of cognitive overload needs to be considered (van Merrienboer et al., 2003).”
BackgroundMethodvan Harsel, M., Hoogerheide, V., Janssen, E. M., Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., & van Gog, T. (2022) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-022-09589-2 · Cited by 18
“…support given their current level of knowledge, but also on tasks that are at an optimal level of complexity (see the 4C/ID model; Van Merriënboer, 1997; Van Merriënboer & Kirschner, 2013), as learning outcomes and motivation might suffer when tasks are too complex (Van Merriënboer et al., 2003).”
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Learning in Action: How Competent Professionals Learn
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Saw, K. G. (2017) · Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education · doi:10.17718/tojde.340405 · Cited by 15
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“Furthermore, research has shown that the in-house experts may miss good solutions due to the significant cognitive load involved in reviewing multiple diverse ideas in a short time frame [46, 48].”
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“The results also highlight that the duration, content and instructional design of the course did not only encourage schema construction but also schema automation (VanMerrienboer et al. 2002, 2003).”
BackgroundSupporting and Strengthening Working Memory in the Classroom to Enhance Executive Functioning
Dehn, M. J. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-8106-5_27 · Cited by 11
Informed and Uninformed Naïve Assessment Constructors’ Strategies for Item Selection
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“Tasks that are more complex necessitate broad, deep knowledge and a variety of strategic processes for successful and fluid task completion (van Merriënboer et al., 2003).”
BackgroundDeveloping and refining a surgical curriculum
Sell, N. M., & Phitayakorn, R. (2019) · Surgery · doi:10.1016/j.surg.2019.06.008 · Cited by 11
Mobile Phone Multitasking and Learning
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Self-citationZhang, K. E., & Jenkinson, J. (2024) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci14030296 · Cited by 19
Cook, C., Finch, T. L., Sharma, S., Girling, M., Rapley, T., & Vernazza, C. R. (2019) · European Journal Of Dental Education · doi:10.1111/eje.12481 · Cited by 10
Everaert, G., Pauwels, I. S., Boets, P., Buysschaert, F., & Goethals, P. L. M. (2012) · Ecological Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.ecoinf.2012.10.007 · Cited by 10
“Examples of such support are providing guidelines, hints and feedback, presenting checklists, asking leading questions and giving part of a solution (van Merrienboër et al., 2003).”
BackgroundInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- van Merrienboer, J. J. G., Kirschner, P. A., & Kester, L.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- ORCID
- Kirschner, Paul A.
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2003-01-01
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 5-13
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W2127791224
- Semantic Scholar
- 5672feb8343dabd71bddf54a434d641ca7a5b7b8
- Cited by
- 857
- References
- 89
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 51 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 33 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 36 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 41 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 45 · 2015: 48 · 2014: 44 · 2013: 43 · 2012: 42
- FWCI
- 39.13
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- complex learning, cognitive load theory, scaffolding, instructional design, authentic learning tasks, transfer of learning, design model
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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