The DOI matches its Crossref record; 63 of the 89 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 5 of the 48 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning
Open accessAbstract
Complex learning aims at the integration of knowledge, skills, and attitudes; the coordination of qualitatively different constituent skills; and the transfer of what is learned to daily life or work settings. Recent instructional theories stress authentic learning tasks as the driving force for learning; but due to the complexity of those tasks, learning may be hampered by the limited processing capacity of the human mind. In this article we present a framework for scaffolding practice and just-in-time information presentation, aiming to control cognitive load effectively. We briefly describe a design model for complex learning consistent with cognitive load theory. Theoretical and practical implications of the presented framework are discussed.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This conceptual article argues that authentic whole-task learning can overwhelm working memory, so instruction should manage cognitive load through scaffolding and timely information. It proposes simple-to-complex task classes, alternative task formats, and just-in-time supportive and procedural information within a four-component design model.
Key findings
- Whole-task sequencing should start with the simplest authentic versions of a task and move through task classes of increasing complexity; simpler classes impose lower intrinsic load and should fall within learners’ proximal development.
- Within a task class, support should fade from worked-out examples to completion, goal-free, or reverse tasks, and finally to conventional problems; these alternatives reduce extraneous load compared with conventional problem solving.
- Supportive information for nonrecurrent aspects should be presented before a task class and elaborated, while procedural information for recurrent aspects should be presented during practice and integrated with the task environment to avoid split attention.
- The 4C/ID model consists of learning tasks, supportive information, procedural information, and part-task practice; part-task practice is reserved for recurrent aspects requiring high automaticity after they have been introduced in whole tasks.
Methods
- Conceptual/theoretical paper, not an empirical study; no sample, data collection, or statistical analysis is reported.
- Synthesizes cognitive load theory and instructional design literature to derive guidelines and a design model for complex learning.
- Uses narrative argument and illustrative examples, such as a literature-search task and a table of task types, rather than original quantitative results.
Limitations
- The authors state the overview is incomplete and note that they are unaware of empirical research relating process-oriented support to cognitive load.
- The authors state the framework focuses on reducing intrinsic and extraneous load as a means to free processing resources, and that explicit methods to increase germane load may be needed; they also note that cognitive load theory alone is insufficient for a full instructional design model.
- Evident from the text: no original empirical test, effect sizes, or new data are presented, so the claims rest on prior studies and conceptual consistency.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
5 of 48 cited sources checked · 3 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Indeed, many experiments supported the counterintuitive prediction that studying worked-out examples facilitates schema construction and transfer performance more than actually solving the equivalent problems does (van Gerven, Paas, van Merriënboer, & Schmidt, 2002; also see Sweller et al., 1998, for an overview).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Types of Learning Tasks
What the sources say
- Supportedcites van Gerven, Paas, van Merriënboer, & Schmidt, 2002 source
Section 4 states that worked examples are more likely than conventional problems to support schema construction and that numerous studies found superior performance and transfer. The Discussion says this paper's own experiment did not find a significant performance advantage, but the cited claim concerns the broader experimental literature the paper reports. (LLM, conf=0.90)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sweller et al., 1998 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Simultaneously performing the tasks and studying the information would almost certainly cause cognitive overload (Kester et al., 2001;Marcus, Cooper, & Sweller, 1996).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Supportive Information
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Kester et al., 2001 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Section 2 recommends presenting supportive information before task clusters, and section 2.1 explains that working-memory capacity is limited. These passages support separating study of supportive information from task performance, but they do not say that doing both simultaneously would almost certainly cause cognitive overload. The Discussion (section 6) calls the preferred timing an assumption needing further support. (LLM, conf=0.82)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Marcus, Cooper, & Sweller, 1996 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The second is called procedural information and is best presented precisely when it is needed during task performance; it pertains to the how-to instructions for the application of rules (Kester, Kirschner, van Merriënboer, & Baumer, 2001).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > JUST-IN-TIME INFORMATION PRESENTATION
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Kester, Kirschner, van Merriënboer, & Baumer, 2001 source
Section 2.1 states that prerequisite information is best presented during practice, when learners need it. Section 4.2.5 includes procedures for operating the system among that prerequisite information, supporting the citing sentence’s description of procedural how-to information. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For subsequent task classes, only new (additional) supportive information should be presented-extending the set of interacting elements (Pollock et al., 2002).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Supportive Information
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Pollock et al., 2002 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The paper describes a progression from isolated elements to learning their interactions in a second phase (Abstract; Results and Discussion). But it says that the second phase presented all the information needed for understanding, not only new or additional information. It does not prescribe this rule for subsequent task classes. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such embedded support is clearly more effective than nonintegrated support (i.e., the parent running alongside and shouting”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > SCAFFOLDING WHOLE-TASK PRACTICE
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Excessive or insufficient support can hamper the learning process.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We conclude that CLT offers useful guidelines for decreasing intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load, so that sufficient processing capacity is left for genuine learning.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
In the paper
“Since then, there has been accumulating evidence that both part-task approaches to sequencing and instructional design models driven by separate objectives do not work well for complex performances that require the integration of skills, knowledge, and attitudes and the extensive coordination of constituent skills in new problem situations (see van Merriënboer, 1997, for a complete discussion).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites van Merriënboer, 1997
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novice learners, learning and performing conventional tasks are different and incompatible processes.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Types of Learning Tasks
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“But Naylor and Briggs (1963) already indicated in the early 1960s that they are not very suitable for learning complex tasks requiring much coordination between their distinct parts or constituent skills.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Naylor and Briggs (1963) source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Each new task class contains learning tasks that are in the zone of proximal development of the learners (Vygotsky, 1934(Vygotsky, /1987)).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Vygotsky, 1934/1987
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Not matched
- It may state two separate claims as one. 13
- Probably not a substantial claim. 17
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Less elements and interactions between elements need to be processed simultaneously in working memory when performing the tasks in simpler task classes; for more complex task classes, the number of elements and interactions between elements increases (cf.Pollock, Chandler, & Sweller, 2002).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Pollock, Chandler, & Sweller, 2002 source
The Results and Discussion passage says complex material involves more interacting elements than working memory can process simultaneously unless they are incorporated into a schema. The passage on sources of cognitive load also describes a continuum from few elements with low interactivity to many elements with high interactivity, supporting the simpler-versus-more-complex comparison. (LLM, conf=0.92)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
- Supported
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“CLT emphasizes the need to integrate support for novice learners with the task environment fully; otherwise, split-attention effects increase extraneous cognitive load because learners have to integrate information mentally from the task environment with the given support (Chandler & Sweller, 1992;Sweller & Chandler, 1994).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > SCAFFOLDING WHOLE-TASK PRACTICE
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
In the paper
“There is overwhelming evidence that such conventional tasks are exceptionally expensive in terms of working memory capacity.They cause high-extraneous cognitive load due to the use of weak problem-solving methods (e.g., means-ends analysis), which bear little relation to schema construction processes that are concerned with learning to recognize problem states and their associated actions (Sweller”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Types of Learning Tasks
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sweller, 1988 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For information with a high-intrinsic complexity, it seems advisable to present the information before the learners start on the learning tasks.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > JUST-IN-TIME INFORMATION PRESENTATION
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Part-task approaches to sequencing are highly effective to prevent cognitive overload because the load associated with a part of the task is lower than the load associated with the whole task.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This necessary information must be active in working memory when performing the task to guide or influence behavior.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > JUST-IN-TIME INFORMATION PRESENTATION
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Goal-free tasks present the learner with a highly aspecific goal, which eliminates the need for means-ends search and so decreases extraneous cognitive load (Paas, Camp, & Rikers, 2001; also see Sweller et al., 1998, for an overview).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Types of Learning Tasks
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whole-task approaches attend to the coordination and integration of constituent skills from the very beginning, and they stress that learners quickly develop a holistic vision of the whole task that is gradually embellished during the training.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Recent instructional theories stress authentic learning tasks as the driving force for learning; but due to the complexity of those tasks, learning may be hampered by the limited processing capacity of the human mind.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“Recent instructional theories tend to focus on authentic learning tasks that are based on real-life tasks as the driving force for learning (Merrill, 2002;Reigeluth, 1999a;van Merriënboer & Kirschner, 2001).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
In the paper
“Fading is also important because the positive effects found for worked-out examples may reverse as learners acquire more expertise: If the necessary schemas for solving a problem are already available, analyzing a redundant worked-out example and integrating it with previously acquired schemas in working memory may impose higher cognitive load than problem solving (see Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, &”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Types of Learning Tasks
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it is critical to prevent split-attention effects when presenting this information.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Procedural Information
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The supportive information is presented in a just-in-time fashion to work on the nonrecurrent aspects of learning tasks within the same task class”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The learning tasks within the same task class are equivalent in the sense that they may be performed on the basis of the same general knowledge (i.e., mental models and cognitive strategies that allow one to perform a version of the task with a particular complexity).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The procedural information, in contrast, is presented just in time to perform the consistent, recurrent aspects of the learning tasks”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Supportive information may be helpful in performing the nonrecurrent aspects of learning tasks.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Procedural Information
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“each task class starts with one or more learning tasks with a high level of embedded support (e.g., worked-out examples), continues with learning tasks with a lower level of support (e.g., completion, goal-free, or reverse tasks), and ends with conventional tasks without support.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It preferably takes the form of direct, step-by-step, or how-to instruction and is quickly faded away for subsequent learning tasks.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For each subsequent task class, additional supportive information is presented to enable the learners to perform the more complex version of the whole task.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These learning tasks will typically be performed by the learners in a simulated or real task environment and, ideally, confront them with all constituent skills that make up the whole complex skill.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the cognitive load imposed by instructional designs should be the preeminent consideration when determining design structures.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > DISCUSSION
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Rests on an assumption: Limited working memory is the most central aspect of human cognitive architecture.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For those aspects, additional part-task practice may be provided-such as children drilling multiplication tables or musicians practicing musical scales.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“when learners have enough expertise, procedural information will become redundant and should thus be removed to decrease extraneous cognitive load (Kalyuga et al.,1998).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Procedural Information
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kalyuga et al.,1998 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Elaboration of the procedural information beforehand has no added value whatsoever; therefore, it is preferably presented precisely when learners need it.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Procedural Information
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The supportive information for each subsequent task class is an addition to or an embellishment of previous information-allowing learners to do things they could not do before.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Supportive Information
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This process of induction is important for constructing new knowledge and, especially, for adapting existing schemas to make them more appropriate to the given experiences (Holland, Holyoak, Nisbett, & Thagard, 1986).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Supportive Information
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Holland, Holyoak, Nisbett, & Thagard, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This four-component instructional design model (referred to hereafter as the 4C/ID model) presupposes that well-designed learning environments for complex learning always consist of four components: (a) learning tasks, (b) supportive information, (c) procedural information, and (d) part-task practice.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is repeated for each subsequent task class, yielding a saw-tooth pattern of support throughout the whole training program.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“They are highly domain specific and allow only for the same use of the same knowledge for performing recurrent aspects of tasks.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Procedural Information
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Anderson, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Anderson, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Newell, 1991
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The authors state this as an assumption.
Authentic learning tasks help learners integrate knowledge, skills, and attitudes; coordinate constituent skills; and transfer what is learned to daily life or work settings.
“The general assumption is that such tasks help learners to integrate the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary for effective task performance; give them the opportunity to learn to coordinate constituent skills that make up complex task performance; and eventually enable them to transfer what is learned to their daily life or work settings.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The human mind has limited processing capacity.
“due to the complexity of those tasks, learning may be hampered by the limited processing capacity of the human mind.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Excessive or insufficient support can hamper the learning process.
“Because excessive or insufficient support can hamper the learning process, it is critical to determine the right type and amount of support and to fade at the appropriate time and rate.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Recent instructional theories tend to focus on real-life tasks as the driving force for learning.
“This article started from the observation that recent instructional theories tend to focus on real-life tasks as the driving force for learning.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Limited working memory is the most central aspect of human cognitive architecture.
“limited working memory is no doubt the most central aspect of human cognitive architecture.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Real-life tasks are typically associated with a very high cognitive load.
“Such tasks are typically associated with a very high-cognitive load”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Certain authors have suggested, for example, that the learner's cognitive load is reduced with the aid of scaffolding and that this thus allows the learner to perform parts of a task that he or she would otherwise not be able to perform”
From Scaffolding in Teacher–Student Interaction: A Decade of Research (2010) · cites this paper as Van Merriënboer et al. 2003
In the citing paper
“For the automation of schemas, compilation and strengthening are the most relevant cognitive processes (Anderson 2000;Van Merriënboer 1997;Van Merriënboer et al. 2003).”
From Interactivity in Video-based Models (2007) · cites this paper as Van Merriënboer et al. 2003
In the citing paper
“To construct adequate schemas two types of cognitive processes are important; elaboration and induction (Van Merriënboer 1997;Van Merriënboer et al. 2003).”
From Interactivity in Video-based Models (2007) · cites this paper as Van Merriënboer et al. 2003
Citations
Cites
The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.
Miller, G. A. (1994) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.101.2.343 · Cited by 17,559
Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning
Sweller, J. (1988) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7 · Cited by 11,048
Axten, N., Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1973) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2063712 · Cited by 6,886
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Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design
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Design and Development of Digital Learning Material for Applied Data Analysis
Busstra, M. C., Geelen, A., Feskens, E. J. M., Hårtog, R. J. M., & Veer, P. V. ’. (2008) · The American Statistician · doi:10.1198/000313008x368837 · Cited by 10
“The exercises that aim at training part-tasks should be presented within the whole task context; otherwise, the student will train each subskill but will not be able to integrate them (Van Merri¨enboer 1997; Kester et al. 2001; Van Merri¨enboer et al. 2002; Van Merri¨enboer et al. 2003).”
BackgroundInfluentialTakır, A., & Aksu, M. (2012) · Creative Education · doi:10.4236/ce.2012.32037 · Cited by 11
A Cognitive Framework for the Analysis of Online Chemistry Courses
Evans, K. L., & Leinhardt, G. (2007) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-007-9087-x · Cited by 10
Akaygün, S., & Jones, L. L. (2013) · ACS symposium series · doi:10.1021/bk-2013-1142.ch006 · Cited by 10
The Utility of Table-Top Exercises in Teaching Nuclear Security
Hobbs, C., Lentini, L., & Moran, M. (2016) · International Journal of Nuclear Security · doi:10.7290/v7x34vdw · Cited by 10
“That is to say, unless given adequate time to engage with and process the information, tasks and challenges involved in the exercise, participants may “have difficulties learning because they are overwhelmed by the task complexity” [14].”
BackgroundCash, A. H., & Pianta, R. C. (2022) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2022.09.008 · Cited by 15
Relationship between clinical experiences and internal medicine clerkship performance
Dong, T., Artino, A. R., Durning, S. J., et al. (2012) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2923.2012.04283.x · Cited by 10
The unconscious allocation of cognitive resources to task-relevant and task irrelevant thoughts.
Kuldas, S., Hashim, S., Nizam Ismail, H., Ali Samsudin, M., & Bakar, Z. A. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.24851328 · Cited by 9
Adaptive Instruction to Learner Expertise with Bimodal Process-oriented Worked-out Examples
Si, J., Kim, D., & Na, C. (2014) · Educational Technology & Society · Cited by 10
Das Vier-Komponenten Instructional Design (4C/ID) Modell
van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-54368-9_8 · Cited by 18
Self-citationTrevisan, M. S., Oki, A. C., & Senger, P. L. (2009) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-009-9200-4 · Cited by 10
Solomon, T., Dupuis, A., O’Hara, A., Hockenberry, M.-N., Lam, J., Goco, G., Ferguson, B., & Tannock, R. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0223049 · Cited by 11
Professional and personal enhancement: a pragmatic approach in dental education
Kandaswamy, D., & Anbarasi, K. (2016) · Korean journal of medical education · doi:10.3946/kjme.2016.23 · Cited by 9
“Though curriculum overload is an unavoidable change occurring globally [16], it has a detrimental effect on the attitude of dental students through missing lectures and laboratory sessions, failing to complete work, and finally, dropping out.”
BackgroundA Target Population Derived Method for Developing a Competency Standard in Radiograph Interpretation
Lee, M. S., Pusic, M. V., Camp, M. W., Stimec, J., Dixon, A., Carrière, B., Herman, J. E., & Boutis, K. (2021) · Teaching and Learning in Medicine · doi:10.1080/10401334.2021.1907581 · Cited by 9
Rodríguez‐Triana, M. J., Prieto, L. P., & Pishtari, G. (2021) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-86436-1_21 · Cited by 9
Rosenberg‐Kima, R. B., Merrill, M., Baylor, A. L., & Johnson, T. E. (2022) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-022-10143-7 · Cited by 12
“The learner first develops a holistic vision of the task and only afterward the local skills (van Merrienboer et al., 2003).”
BackgroundAzman, A. N., & Johari, M. (2022) · Jurnal Pendidikan IPA Indonesia · doi:10.15294/jpii.v11i3.37324 · Cited by 17
“Good instructional sequencing can manage the intrinsic load, where the content elements are introduced in a simple-to-complex sequencing (Van Merriënboer et al., 2003).”
BackgroundShen, C.-Y., & Chu, H.-P. (2014) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-07308-8_55 · Cited by 9
Model-Based Diagnosis for Regulative Support in Inquiry Learning
van Joolingen, W., & de Jong, T. (2013) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-5546-3_38 · Cited by 9
Transferring Collaboration Process Designs to Practitioners
Kolfschoten, G. L., van der Hulst, S., den Hengst, M., & de Vreede, G. (2012) · International Journal of e-Collaboration · doi:10.4018/jec.2012070103 · Cited by 9
Writing to advance knowledge: The impact of readability on knowledge diffusion in OSCM
Jeong, S., Rogers, Z. S., & Washispack, S. (2021) · Decision Sciences · doi:10.1111/deci.12543 · Cited by 10
Wasfy, N. F., Abed, R. A. R., Gouda, E. M., Ghaly, M. S., & El-Wazir, Y. M. (2021) · Advanced Education · doi:10.20535/2410-8286.225686 · Cited by 11
“As learners without prior knowledge must use a significant proportion of the limited working memory capacity in accommodating new terminology and concepts, whereas learners with prior knowledge can progress to linking new information with the existing one Van Merriënboer et al. (2003).”
BackgroundIdentifying and explicating knowledge on method transfer: a sectoral system of innovation approach
Hvannberg, E. Þ. (2013) · Universal Access in the Information Society · doi:10.1007/s10209-013-0340-1 · Cited by 9
“periodically and can be specified as a whole task and part task [23].”
BackgroundKılıç, E., & Yıldırım, Z. (2010) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.715 · Cited by 9
Impelluso, T. J. (2009) · AEE Journal · Cited by 9
From Instructional Design to Setting up Pedagogical Infrastructures
Lakkala, M., Ilomäki, L., & Kosonen, K. (2010) · Advances in human and social aspects of technology book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-61520-937-8.ch008 · Cited by 9
Transformative Learning Experiences: How Do We Get Students Deeply Engaged for Lasting Change?
Wilson, B., Switzer, S. H., & Parrish, P. E. (2007) · Cited by 9
Phan, H. P., & Ngu, B. H. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.557968 · Cited by 9
“Deciding whether a student’s learning experience is one of consonance or disconsonance is subjective and, in part, may depend on his/her perception of cognitive complexity (van Merriënboer et al., 2003; van Merriënboer and Sweller, 2005).”
BackgroundFostering Self-Regulated Learning in Technology Enhanced Learning Environments
Beishuizen, J. J. (2011) · SensePublishers eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-6091-654-0_6 · Cited by 9
An Approach to Reducing Cognitive Load in the Teaching of Introductory Database Concepts
Bunch, J. M. (2009) · Journal of the Association for Information Systems · Cited by 9
Dynamic Task Selection in Aviation Training
Salden, R. (2005) · DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) · Cited by 9
Hachmi, A., Moussaouy, A. E., Ouariach, A., et al. (2022) · Physics Education · doi:10.1088/1361-6552/ac4209 · Cited by 8
Aufgabenkultur in der (Grund‑)Schule
Kiel, E. (2019) · Zeitschrift für Grundschulforschung · doi:10.1007/s42278-019-00044-9 · Cited by 8
A holistic framework for developing purposeful practical work
Hennah, N., Newton, S., & Seery, M. K. (2022) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/d1rp00168j · Cited by 9
“…(6:43) • Electrolysis concepts https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4GGcApT54gE (7:45) Informed by instructional design for complex learning (van Merrienboer et al., 2003) separating the information in this way could help to lower the cognitive load of the task.”
A POCUS-first pathway to streamline care for children with suspected ileocolic intussusception
Katz‐Dana, H., Harel‐Sterling, M., Vincent, D., et al. (2024) · Canadian Journal of Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1007/s43678-024-00673-9 · Cited by 8
“In addition to improving ED processes and flow, the use of POCUS for intussusception can also reduce the cognitive load on ED providers by reducing diagnostic uncertainty (as presentations of intus-susception are often non-specific) and improving disposition planning [17–19].”
Asmussen, G., Rodemer, M., & Bernholt, S. (2024) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2024.2361933 · Cited by 10
“Moreover, these can also be presented in different ways (van Merriënboer et al., 2003).”
Memmert, L., Tavanapour, N., & Bittner, E. A. C. (2023) · Journal of Information Systems Education · doi:10.62273/bvdt9573 · Cited by 8
Library Tutorials in an Allied Health Evidence-Based Practice Class
Hoberecht, T., Randall, K., & Schweikhard, A. J. (2015) · Medical Reference Services Quarterly · doi:10.1080/02763869.2015.1019765 · Cited by 8
“He noted that the concept of online modules was consistent with the ‘‘Just-in-Time’’ learning theory, in which learners are primed for maximum motivation and understanding when they are able to access information when it is most relevant to them.(2,3) Further, the possibility that students could access the modules at…”
ResultUsing Cognitive Load Theory to Optimize Simulation Design
Naismith, L. M., Cheung, J. J. H., Sibbald, M., Tavares, W., Cavalcanti, R. B., Haji, F. A., & Fraser, K. L. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815657-5.00010-3 · Cited by 11
Claeys, T., Dolmans, D. H. J. M., & de Nooijer, J. (2022) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.1080/0142159x.2022.2041188 · Cited by 9
“…from real-world and ill-defined problems enhances the integration and application of knowledge, skills and attitudes and promotes the transfer of learning to new situations or practice (van Merrienboer et al. 2002; van Merrienboer et al. 2003; Vandewaetere et al. 2015; Frerejean et al. 2019).”
BackgroundA Constructivist Approach to Teaching Web Development in Post-Secondary Vocational Settings
Bunch, J. M. (2009) · Journal of Information Technology Education Research · doi:10.28945/693 · Cited by 8
“An instructional approach useful for creating appropriate levels of cognitive load is scaffolding – presenting performance supports as needed to achieve a goal, then fading them away as the learner is able to achieve the goal on his or her own ( van Merrienboer et al., 2003 ).”
BackgroundInfluentialChildren's Problem-Solving in Serious Games: The "Fine-Tuning System (FTS)" Elaborated.
Obikwelu, C. O., Read, J. C., & Sim, G. (2013) · The Electronic Journal of e-Learning · Cited by 8
Education 2.0: Student Generated Learning Materials through Collaborative Work
Ramirez-Velarde, R. V., Perez-Cazares, R., Alexandrov, N., et al. (2014) · Procedia Computer Science · doi:10.1016/j.procs.2014.05.168 · Cited by 8
Managing Sequential Task Portfolios in the Face of Temporal Atypicality and Task Complexity
Sterling, C., Lopez‐Kidwell, V., Labianca, G., & Moon, H. K. (2013) · Human Performance · doi:10.1080/08959285.2013.814658 · Cited by 8
Using Assessment Criteria to Support Student Learning
Harrington, K., & Elander, J. (2003) · London Met Repository (London Metropolitan University) · Cited by 8
Thinking about vocational choice.
Bullock‐Yowell, E., Saunders, D. E., & Peterson, G. W. (2014) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/14439-020 · Cited by 8
Harnessing technology in chemistry education
Seery, M. K. (2016) · New Directions in the Teaching of Physical Sciences · doi:10.29311/ndtps.v0i9.505 · Cited by 8
“In addition, their work purposefully avoided “how-to” components in their pre-lab work, as they felt that these were better delivered in the lab, as required (van Merrienboer et al. 2003).”
BackgroundComputer-Based Instruction (CBI) Within Special Education
Butcher, K. R., & Jameson, J. M. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-802075-3.00009-7 · Cited by 9
Micro-Level Design for Multimedia-Enhanced Online Courses
Snelson, C., & Elison‐Bowers, P. (2007) · ScholarWorks (Boise State University) · Cited by 8
Lee, Y.-J. (2010) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/ec.42.4.b · Cited by 8
Zhu, Y., Abidi, L., Savelberg, H. H. C. M., Köhler, E., Kusurkar, R. A., & Dolmans, D. H. J. M. (2024) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-024-06494-9 · Cited by 18
“Teachers in a learning environment that supports scaffolding should not direct learners but rather guide them while working on complex tasks and, therefore, deciding on the right type, amount, and time of support is crucial [64].”
Eickelmann, A.-K., Waldner, N., & Huwendiek, S. (2021) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-021-03027-6 · Cited by 8
“This was done in this workshop, and it is known as ʻjust-in-time information presentationʼ [7].”
MethodExploring students’ perceptions of self-assessment in the context of problem solving in STEM
Lämsä, J., Virtanen, A., Tynjälä, P., Maunuksela, J., & Koskinen, P. (2023) · LUMAT International Journal on Math Science and Technology Education · doi:10.31129/lumat.11.2.2028 · Cited by 10
Carry-forward effect: providing proactive scaffolding to learning processes
Sharma, K., & Giannakos, M. N. (2024) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2024.2411592 · Cited by 17
“As it is important to carefully design the instruction to not cognitively overload the learners (Van Merriënboer, Kirschner, and Kester 2003).”
Song, M. (2011) · Lincoln (University of Nebraska) · Cited by 7
A model for generating personalised learning experiences
Mangione, G. R., Pierri, A., & Salerno, S. (2009) · International Journal of Technology Enhanced Learning · doi:10.1504/ijtel.2009.030781 · Cited by 7
Cognitive Load Theory: Implications for Nursing Education and Research
Chen, R., Dore, K., Grierson, L. E. M., Hatala, R., & Norman, G. (2014) · Canadian Journal of Nursing Research · doi:10.1177/084456211404600204 · Cited by 8
Choi, S., Kim, N., Choi, S., & Kim, D. (2019) · Problems of Education in the 21st Century · doi:10.33225/pec/19.77.228 · Cited by 7
Pedagogical constraints of physical literacy based on cognitive load theory
Dudley, D. A., Dean, H., Cairney, J., & Bergen, P. V. (2020) · Prospects · doi:10.1007/s11125-020-09496-9 · Cited by 9
Lai, G. (2022) · Digital Archive @ GSU · doi:10.57709/1059119 · Cited by 7
Development and Teaching of Complex Skills in Invasive Procedures
van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Tjiam, I. M. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-27676-7_12 · Cited by 7
Self-citationHow sequencing and fading affects the relationship between intrinsic and germane cognitive loads
Lange, C. H., & Costley, J. (2019) · Distance Education · doi:10.1080/01587919.2019.1600366 · Cited by 7
Yang, H.-Y. (2019) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2019.1677037 · Cited by 7
“Presenting correct type of visual guidance in correct timing and retracting the visual guidance in timely manner was critical to achieve desired effectiveness (Van Merriënboer et al., 2003).”
BackgroundEricson, B. J., Hoffman, B., & Rosato, J. (2020) · Workshop in Primary and Secondary Computing Education · doi:10.1145/3421590.3421593 · Cited by 8
“Programming courses often require students to write code from scratch, however this can quickly overwhelm working memory [33, 38].”
BackgroundImpact of Knowledge Representations on Problem-Oriented Learning in Online Environments
Gao, Q., Wang, D., & Gao, F. (2015) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2015.1072788 · Cited by 7
Song, D. (2013) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2013.862553 · Cited by 8
“Sequencing is especially significant in domains of high element interactivity (van Merriënboer et al., 2003).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialKilonzo, S. M., Sandfort, J. R., & Liu, H. K. (2016) · Journal of Public Affairs Education · doi:10.1080/15236803.2016.12002252 · Cited by 7
The Theory of Totally Integrated Education (TIE)
Frick, T. W. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-17727-4_69-2 · Cited by 7
The Role of Attention in the Design of Learning Management Systems.
Roda, C., & Nabeth, T. (2005) · Cited by 7
Mooij, T. (2007) · DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) · Cited by 7
Aksaray, S. G., & Özçelik, E. (2022) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2022.2154317 · Cited by 8
“When limited working memory resources are used to process this additional information, fewer resources will be available for current cognitive processes (van Merri€enboer et al., 2003).”
MethodRash Decisions: Improving Pediatrician Skills in Dermatologic Diagnosis
Gupta, J., Sibbald, C. J., Weinstein, M., Pusic, M. V., Bell, M., MacLellan, N., Bobotsis, R., Brar, R., & Boutis, K. (2025) · The Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2024.114436 · Cited by 6
Lorenzo, M., Cory, E., Cho, R., et al. (2024) · The Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2024.114183 · Cited by 6
Understanding the Paradox of Mental Effort in Online Learning Conversations
Eryilmaz, E. (2011) · International Conference on Information Systems · Cited by 7
Human Tutorial Instruction in the Raw
Gil, Y. (2015) · ACM Transactions on Interactive Intelligent Systems · doi:10.1145/2531920 · Cited by 6
Darabi, A., Nelson, D. W., Meeker, R. H., Liang, X., & Boulware, W. (2010) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-010-9033-4 · Cited by 6
“Complex learning is that in which the skills to be acquired involve so many interacting components that the learner can become overwhelmed by the learning tasks (van Merrie¨nboer et al. 2003).”
BackgroundDo Students Need More Motivational Resources or More Cognitive Resources for Better Learning?
Ismail, H. N., Kuldas, S., & Hamzah, A. (2013) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.10.241 · Cited by 7
Using pictorial mnemonics in the learning of tax: a cognitive load perspective
Smith, B., & Shimeld, S. (2013) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/07294360.2013.841652 · Cited by 6
A Meta-Analytic Integration of What Matters in Training Transfer
Hughes, A. M. (2016) · Journal of International Crisis and Risk Communication Research · Cited by 6
Integrating Technical and Nontechnical Skills in Hands-On Surgical Training
Alken, A. P. B., Fluit, C. R. M. G., Luursema, J., et al. (2018) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.73044 · Cited by 6
Algorithm-Aided Design with Python: Analysis of Technological Competence of Subjects
Pontes, T. B., Miranda, G. L., & Celani, G. (2018) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci8040200 · Cited by 7
“The 4C-ID instructional design model was developed to teach knowledge, skills, and attitudes in an integrated way, and to train students to be able to transfer these aptitudes to real life problems [31].”
MethodArbuckle, R., Staunton, H., Sully, K., et al. (2018) · Value in Health · doi:10.1016/j.jval.2018.09.2845 · Cited by 6
Carlson, K. J., Klute, L. M., Dowdall, J. R., et al. (2021) · Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions · doi:10.1097/ceh.0000000000000385 · Cited by 6
Johnson, T. E., & Rosenberg‐Kima, R. B. (2012) · ProQuest LLC eBooks · Cited by 6
Krancher, O., & Slaughter, S. A. (2013) · Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS) · doi:10.1109/hicss.2013.242 · Cited by 9
“While developing propositions explaining the occurrence of learning activities, we controlled for a decreasing need of supportive information and specification with increasing expertise [25].”
BackgroundInfluentialKılıç, E., & Yıldırım, Z. (2012) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/ec.47.3.e · Cited by 7
“Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) provides valuable guidelines on how to deal with the overload (Van Merriënboer et al., 2003).”
Backgroundde Bruin, A. B. H., Sibbald, M., & Monteiro, S. (2018) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119373780.ch3 · Cited by 6
Wade, C. H. (2011) · TigerPrints (Clemson University) · Cited by 6
Richter, S. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_342 · Cited by 6
Rasouli, M., Karimi, H., & Hatami, J. (2024) · Safety Science · doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2024.106769 · Cited by 12
Kiili, C., Kiili, K. J. M., Räikkönen, E., & Coiro, J. (2025) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105252 · Cited by 6
Insights from 40 years of educational research: honoring Jeroen van Merriënboer
Frèrejean, J., Walker, K., Symon, B., & Eppich, W. (2025) · Advances in Simulation · doi:10.1186/s41077-025-00332-8 · Cited by 5
Second Language Cognitive Task Complexity
Sasayama, S., Malicka, A., & Norris, J. M. (2025) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.18 · Cited by 7
Carroll, A. J., Borycz, J., Stephens, N. K., & Lowery, A. R. (2025) · The Journal of Academic Librarianship · doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2025.103124 · Cited by 8
Chao, Y.-H., Wu, H., & Chang, T. (2025) · Nurse Education Today · doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2025.106854 · Cited by 7
Learning linear equations: capitalizing on cognitive load theory and learning by analogy
Ngu, B. H., & Phan, H. P. (2021) · International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/0020739x.2021.1902007 · Cited by 6
“In this analysis, from cognitive load theory (Sweller, 2012; Sweller et al., 2011), the sequencing of linear equations designed to reduce a student’s working memory load would depend on his/her prior knowledge (van Merrienboer et al., 2003).”
MethodCritiquing lab technique videos prior to class: can it improve demonstrated technique?
Tenney, S. M., Russell, A. A., & Casey, J. R. (2024) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/d4rp00036f · Cited by 5
Junker, R., Janeczko, J. M., Lehmkuhl, A., Zucker, V., Holodynski, M., & Meschede, N. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-025-13559-9 · Cited by 11
“…the effect of VLEs on learning processes, the main question to ask is to what extent they positively or negatively influence intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load and leave available as many resources as possible for germane cogni - tive load (Mayer, 2014 ; van Merriënboer et al., 2003 ).”
Metadata
- Authors
- van Merrienboer, J. J. G., Kirschner, P. A., & Kester, L.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- ORCID
- Kirschner, Paul A.
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2003-01-01
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 5-13
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W2127791224
- Semantic Scholar
- 5672feb8343dabd71bddf54a434d641ca7a5b7b8
- Cited by
- 857
- References
- 89
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 51 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 33 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 36 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 41 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 45 · 2015: 48 · 2014: 44 · 2013: 43 · 2012: 42
- FWCI
- 39.13
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- complex learning, cognitive load theory, scaffolding, instructional design, authentic learning tasks, transfer of learning, design model
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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