The DOI matches its Crossref record; 63 of the 89 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 5 of the 48 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning
Open accessAbstract
Complex learning aims at the integration of knowledge, skills, and attitudes; the coordination of qualitatively different constituent skills; and the transfer of what is learned to daily life or work settings. Recent instructional theories stress authentic learning tasks as the driving force for learning; but due to the complexity of those tasks, learning may be hampered by the limited processing capacity of the human mind. In this article we present a framework for scaffolding practice and just-in-time information presentation, aiming to control cognitive load effectively. We briefly describe a design model for complex learning consistent with cognitive load theory. Theoretical and practical implications of the presented framework are discussed.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This conceptual article argues that authentic whole-task learning can overwhelm working memory, so instruction should manage cognitive load through scaffolding and timely information. It proposes simple-to-complex task classes, alternative task formats, and just-in-time supportive and procedural information within a four-component design model.
Key findings
- Whole-task sequencing should start with the simplest authentic versions of a task and move through task classes of increasing complexity; simpler classes impose lower intrinsic load and should fall within learners’ proximal development.
- Within a task class, support should fade from worked-out examples to completion, goal-free, or reverse tasks, and finally to conventional problems; these alternatives reduce extraneous load compared with conventional problem solving.
- Supportive information for nonrecurrent aspects should be presented before a task class and elaborated, while procedural information for recurrent aspects should be presented during practice and integrated with the task environment to avoid split attention.
- The 4C/ID model consists of learning tasks, supportive information, procedural information, and part-task practice; part-task practice is reserved for recurrent aspects requiring high automaticity after they have been introduced in whole tasks.
Methods
- Conceptual/theoretical paper, not an empirical study; no sample, data collection, or statistical analysis is reported.
- Synthesizes cognitive load theory and instructional design literature to derive guidelines and a design model for complex learning.
- Uses narrative argument and illustrative examples, such as a literature-search task and a table of task types, rather than original quantitative results.
Limitations
- The authors state the overview is incomplete and note that they are unaware of empirical research relating process-oriented support to cognitive load.
- The authors state the framework focuses on reducing intrinsic and extraneous load as a means to free processing resources, and that explicit methods to increase germane load may be needed; they also note that cognitive load theory alone is insufficient for a full instructional design model.
- Evident from the text: no original empirical test, effect sizes, or new data are presented, so the claims rest on prior studies and conceptual consistency.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
5 of 48 cited sources checked · 3 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Indeed, many experiments supported the counterintuitive prediction that studying worked-out examples facilitates schema construction and transfer performance more than actually solving the equivalent problems does (van Gerven, Paas, van Merriënboer, & Schmidt, 2002; also see Sweller et al., 1998, for an overview).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Types of Learning Tasks
What the sources say
- Supportedcites van Gerven, Paas, van Merriënboer, & Schmidt, 2002 source
Section 4 states that worked examples are more likely than conventional problems to support schema construction and that numerous studies found superior performance and transfer. The Discussion says this paper's own experiment did not find a significant performance advantage, but the cited claim concerns the broader experimental literature the paper reports. (LLM, conf=0.90)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sweller et al., 1998 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Simultaneously performing the tasks and studying the information would almost certainly cause cognitive overload (Kester et al., 2001;Marcus, Cooper, & Sweller, 1996).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Supportive Information
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Kester et al., 2001 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Section 2 recommends presenting supportive information before task clusters, and section 2.1 explains that working-memory capacity is limited. These passages support separating study of supportive information from task performance, but they do not say that doing both simultaneously would almost certainly cause cognitive overload. The Discussion (section 6) calls the preferred timing an assumption needing further support. (LLM, conf=0.82)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Marcus, Cooper, & Sweller, 1996 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The second is called procedural information and is best presented precisely when it is needed during task performance; it pertains to the how-to instructions for the application of rules (Kester, Kirschner, van Merriënboer, & Baumer, 2001).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > JUST-IN-TIME INFORMATION PRESENTATION
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Kester, Kirschner, van Merriënboer, & Baumer, 2001 source
Section 2.1 states that prerequisite information is best presented during practice, when learners need it. Section 4.2.5 includes procedures for operating the system among that prerequisite information, supporting the citing sentence’s description of procedural how-to information. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For subsequent task classes, only new (additional) supportive information should be presented-extending the set of interacting elements (Pollock et al., 2002).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Supportive Information
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Pollock et al., 2002 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The paper describes a progression from isolated elements to learning their interactions in a second phase (Abstract; Results and Discussion). But it says that the second phase presented all the information needed for understanding, not only new or additional information. It does not prescribe this rule for subsequent task classes. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such embedded support is clearly more effective than nonintegrated support (i.e., the parent running alongside and shouting”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > SCAFFOLDING WHOLE-TASK PRACTICE
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Excessive or insufficient support can hamper the learning process.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We conclude that CLT offers useful guidelines for decreasing intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load, so that sufficient processing capacity is left for genuine learning.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
In the paper
“Since then, there has been accumulating evidence that both part-task approaches to sequencing and instructional design models driven by separate objectives do not work well for complex performances that require the integration of skills, knowledge, and attitudes and the extensive coordination of constituent skills in new problem situations (see van Merriënboer, 1997, for a complete discussion).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites van Merriënboer, 1997
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novice learners, learning and performing conventional tasks are different and incompatible processes.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Types of Learning Tasks
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“But Naylor and Briggs (1963) already indicated in the early 1960s that they are not very suitable for learning complex tasks requiring much coordination between their distinct parts or constituent skills.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Naylor and Briggs (1963) source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Each new task class contains learning tasks that are in the zone of proximal development of the learners (Vygotsky, 1934(Vygotsky, /1987)).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Vygotsky, 1934/1987
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Not matched
- It may state two separate claims as one. 13
- Probably not a substantial claim. 17
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Less elements and interactions between elements need to be processed simultaneously in working memory when performing the tasks in simpler task classes; for more complex task classes, the number of elements and interactions between elements increases (cf.Pollock, Chandler, & Sweller, 2002).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Pollock, Chandler, & Sweller, 2002 source
The Results and Discussion passage says complex material involves more interacting elements than working memory can process simultaneously unless they are incorporated into a schema. The passage on sources of cognitive load also describes a continuum from few elements with low interactivity to many elements with high interactivity, supporting the simpler-versus-more-complex comparison. (LLM, conf=0.92)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
- Supported
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“CLT emphasizes the need to integrate support for novice learners with the task environment fully; otherwise, split-attention effects increase extraneous cognitive load because learners have to integrate information mentally from the task environment with the given support (Chandler & Sweller, 1992;Sweller & Chandler, 1994).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > SCAFFOLDING WHOLE-TASK PRACTICE
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
In the paper
“There is overwhelming evidence that such conventional tasks are exceptionally expensive in terms of working memory capacity.They cause high-extraneous cognitive load due to the use of weak problem-solving methods (e.g., means-ends analysis), which bear little relation to schema construction processes that are concerned with learning to recognize problem states and their associated actions (Sweller”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Types of Learning Tasks
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sweller, 1988 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For information with a high-intrinsic complexity, it seems advisable to present the information before the learners start on the learning tasks.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > JUST-IN-TIME INFORMATION PRESENTATION
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Part-task approaches to sequencing are highly effective to prevent cognitive overload because the load associated with a part of the task is lower than the load associated with the whole task.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This necessary information must be active in working memory when performing the task to guide or influence behavior.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > JUST-IN-TIME INFORMATION PRESENTATION
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The human mind has limited processing capacity.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Goal-free tasks present the learner with a highly aspecific goal, which eliminates the need for means-ends search and so decreases extraneous cognitive load (Paas, Camp, & Rikers, 2001; also see Sweller et al., 1998, for an overview).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Types of Learning Tasks
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whole-task approaches attend to the coordination and integration of constituent skills from the very beginning, and they stress that learners quickly develop a holistic vision of the whole task that is gradually embellished during the training.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Simple-to-Complex Sequencing
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Recent instructional theories stress authentic learning tasks as the driving force for learning; but due to the complexity of those tasks, learning may be hampered by the limited processing capacity of the human mind.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“Recent instructional theories tend to focus on authentic learning tasks that are based on real-life tasks as the driving force for learning (Merrill, 2002;Reigeluth, 1999a;van Merriënboer & Kirschner, 2001).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
In the paper
“Fading is also important because the positive effects found for worked-out examples may reverse as learners acquire more expertise: If the necessary schemas for solving a problem are already available, analyzing a redundant worked-out example and integrating it with previously acquired schemas in working memory may impose higher cognitive load than problem solving (see Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, &”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Types of Learning Tasks
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it is critical to prevent split-attention effects when presenting this information.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Procedural Information
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The supportive information is presented in a just-in-time fashion to work on the nonrecurrent aspects of learning tasks within the same task class”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The learning tasks within the same task class are equivalent in the sense that they may be performed on the basis of the same general knowledge (i.e., mental models and cognitive strategies that allow one to perform a version of the task with a particular complexity).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The procedural information, in contrast, is presented just in time to perform the consistent, recurrent aspects of the learning tasks”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Supportive information may be helpful in performing the nonrecurrent aspects of learning tasks.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Procedural Information
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“each task class starts with one or more learning tasks with a high level of embedded support (e.g., worked-out examples), continues with learning tasks with a lower level of support (e.g., completion, goal-free, or reverse tasks), and ends with conventional tasks without support.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It preferably takes the form of direct, step-by-step, or how-to instruction and is quickly faded away for subsequent learning tasks.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For each subsequent task class, additional supportive information is presented to enable the learners to perform the more complex version of the whole task.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These learning tasks will typically be performed by the learners in a simulated or real task environment and, ideally, confront them with all constituent skills that make up the whole complex skill.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the cognitive load imposed by instructional designs should be the preeminent consideration when determining design structures.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > DISCUSSION
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Rests on an assumption: Limited working memory is the most central aspect of human cognitive architecture.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For those aspects, additional part-task practice may be provided-such as children drilling multiplication tables or musicians practicing musical scales.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“when learners have enough expertise, procedural information will become redundant and should thus be removed to decrease extraneous cognitive load (Kalyuga et al.,1998).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Procedural Information
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kalyuga et al.,1998 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Elaboration of the procedural information beforehand has no added value whatsoever; therefore, it is preferably presented precisely when learners need it.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Procedural Information
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The supportive information for each subsequent task class is an addition to or an embellishment of previous information-allowing learners to do things they could not do before.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Supportive Information
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This process of induction is important for constructing new knowledge and, especially, for adapting existing schemas to make them more appropriate to the given experiences (Holland, Holyoak, Nisbett, & Thagard, 1986).”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Supportive Information
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Holland, Holyoak, Nisbett, & Thagard, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This four-component instructional design model (referred to hereafter as the 4C/ID model) presupposes that well-designed learning environments for complex learning always consist of four components: (a) learning tasks, (b) supportive information, (c) procedural information, and (d) part-task practice.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is repeated for each subsequent task class, yielding a saw-tooth pattern of support throughout the whole training program.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > A DESIGN MODEL FOR COMPLEX LEARNING
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“They are highly domain specific and allow only for the same use of the same knowledge for performing recurrent aspects of tasks.”
§ Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning > Procedural Information
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Anderson, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Anderson, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Newell, 1991
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The authors state this as an assumption.
Authentic learning tasks help learners integrate knowledge, skills, and attitudes; coordinate constituent skills; and transfer what is learned to daily life or work settings.
“The general assumption is that such tasks help learners to integrate the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary for effective task performance; give them the opportunity to learn to coordinate constituent skills that make up complex task performance; and eventually enable them to transfer what is learned to their daily life or work settings.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The human mind has limited processing capacity.
“due to the complexity of those tasks, learning may be hampered by the limited processing capacity of the human mind.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Excessive or insufficient support can hamper the learning process.
“Because excessive or insufficient support can hamper the learning process, it is critical to determine the right type and amount of support and to fade at the appropriate time and rate.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Recent instructional theories tend to focus on real-life tasks as the driving force for learning.
“This article started from the observation that recent instructional theories tend to focus on real-life tasks as the driving force for learning.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Limited working memory is the most central aspect of human cognitive architecture.
“limited working memory is no doubt the most central aspect of human cognitive architecture.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Real-life tasks are typically associated with a very high cognitive load.
“Such tasks are typically associated with a very high-cognitive load”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Certain authors have suggested, for example, that the learner's cognitive load is reduced with the aid of scaffolding and that this thus allows the learner to perform parts of a task that he or she would otherwise not be able to perform”
From Scaffolding in Teacher–Student Interaction: A Decade of Research (2010) · cites this paper as Van Merriënboer et al. 2003
In the citing paper
“For the automation of schemas, compilation and strengthening are the most relevant cognitive processes (Anderson 2000;Van Merriënboer 1997;Van Merriënboer et al. 2003).”
From Interactivity in Video-based Models (2007) · cites this paper as Van Merriënboer et al. 2003
In the citing paper
“To construct adequate schemas two types of cognitive processes are important; elaboration and induction (Van Merriënboer 1997;Van Merriënboer et al. 2003).”
From Interactivity in Video-based Models (2007) · cites this paper as Van Merriënboer et al. 2003
Citations
Cites
The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.
Miller, G. A. (1994) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.101.2.343 · Cited by 17,559
Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning
Sweller, J. (1988) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7 · Cited by 11,048
Axten, N., Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1973) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2063712 · Cited by 6,886
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Lim, J. H., Reiser, R. A., & Olina, Z. (2008) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-007-9085-y · Cited by 92
Cognitive Load and Stress in Simulation
Bong, C. L., Fraser, K. L., & Oriot, D. (2016) · Comprehensive healthcare simulation · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-24187-6_1 · Cited by 96
Eight guidelines for the design of instructional videos for software training
van der Meij, H., & van der Meij, J. (2013) · University of Twente Research Information · Cited by 82
Khalil, M. K., Paas, F., Johnson, T. E., & Payer, A. F. (2005) · The Anatomical Record Part B: The New Anatomist · doi:10.1002/ar.b.20078 · Cited by 79
van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Kester, L. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816819.006 · Cited by 82
Self-citationA fresh look at novice programmers' performance and their teachers' expectations
Utting, I., Tew, A. E., McCracken, M., Thomas, L., Bouvier, D. J., Frye, R., Paterson, J. H., Caspersen, M. E., Kolikant, Y. B., Sorva, J., et al. (2013) · doi:10.1145/2543882.2543884 · Cited by 79
A comparison of approaches to learning task selection in the training of complex cognitive skills
Salden, R., PAAS, F. G. W. C., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2004) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2004.06.003 · Cited by 80
Self-citationMaggio, L. A., ten Cate, O., Irby, D. M., & OʼBrien, B. C. (2015) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0000000000000769 · Cited by 79
Just-in-time, schematic supportive information presentation during cognitive skill acquisition
Kester, L., Lehnen, C., Gerven, P. W. M. V., & Kirschner, P. A. (2005) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2005.01.008 · Cited by 82
“…the extraneous cognitive load in the instructional material, it appears to be advisable to present procedural information during practice, integrated in the graphical representations of the simple neural networks (Kester, Kirschner, van Merrie¨nboer, & Ba¨umer, 2001; Van Merrie¨nboer et al., 2003).”
Self-citationGielen, M., & Wever, B. D. (2015) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2015.07.012 · Cited by 80
Campbell, A. E., Davis, G. E., & Adams, V. M. (2007) · Mathematical Thinking and Learning · doi:10.1080/10986060709336603 · Cited by 92
“Reduction of goal specificity in the early stages of teaching and learning a new principle reduces cognitive load (Owen & Sweller, 1985; Sweller, 1988; van Merriënboer et al., 2003).”
BackgroundThe impact of haptic augmentation on middle school students’ conceptions of the animal cell
Minogue, J., Jones, M. G., Broadwell, B., & Oppewal, T. (2006) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-006-0052-4 · Cited by 79
“…7718, Ewing, NJ 08628, USA e-mail: minogue@tcnj.edu M. Gail Jones B. Broadwell T. Oppewall Department of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA able to not only see but also ‘‘feel’’ and manipulate 3D virtual objects (McLaughlin et al. 2002).”
BackgroundGielen, M., & Wever, B. D. (2015) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12096 · Cited by 78
“Scoring rubric for quality of peer feedback messages Firstly, the rubric to assess the peer feedback quality is based upon the FQI (Prins et al., 2006), which, in turn, is based upon several prior studies (e.g., Sluijsmans, Brand-Gruwel, & Van Merriënboer, 2002).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe effect of embedded instruction on solving information problems
Wopereis, I. G. J. H., Brand‐Gruwel, S., & Vermetten, Y. (2007) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2007.01.024 · Cited by 80
“Scaffolding can be regarded as another principle of instruction and includes a combination of performance support and fading (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989; Van Merriënboer et al., 2003).”
BackgroundUsing the inquiry-based learning approach to enhance student innovativeness: a conceptual model
Acar, O. A., & Tunçdoğan, A. (2018) · Teaching in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/13562517.2018.1516636 · Cited by 103
Li, J., Luo, H., Zhao, L., et al. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su141610333 · Cited by 71
“Second, authors have suggested that a learner’s cognitive load is reduced with the aid of scaffolding and that this allows the learner to perform parts of a task that he or she would otherwise not be able to perform [35,36].”
BackgroundDesign of integrated practice for learning professional competences
Janssen-Noordman, A. M. B., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., van der Vleuten, C. P. M., & Scherpbier, A. J. J. A. (2006) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.1080/01421590600825276 · Cited by 71
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Evaluating the Efficiency and Effectiveness of Adaptive Parsons Problems
Ericson, B. J., Foley, J. D., & Rick, J. (2018) · Proceedings of the 2018 ACM Conference on International Computing Education Research · doi:10.1145/3230977.3231000 · Cited by 70
“However, writing programs, even short ones, is a complex cognitive task, which can easily overwhelm novices and impede learning [40, 44].”
BackgroundTrends and issues of regulative support use during inquiry learning: Patterns from three studies
Manlove, S., Lazonder, A. W., & de Jong, T. (2008) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.07.010 · Cited by 74
Angeli, C., Valanides, N., & Kirschner, P. A. (2009) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2009.05.010 · Cited by 71
Self-citationEnhancing student knowledge acquisition from online learning conversations
Eryilmaz, E., van der Pol, J., Ryan, T., Clark, P. M., & Mary, J. (2013) · International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning · doi:10.1007/s11412-012-9163-y · Cited by 69
“As explained by Van Merriënboer et al. (2003), cognitive load theory provides two guiding principles when dealing with this limitation.”
BackgroundResultCarpenter, S. K., Endres, T., & Hui, L. (2020) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-020-09562-w · Cited by 80
“Experimental studies have demonstrated the benefits of partial problem solving (e.g., Renkl 2014; Renkl and Atkinson 2003; van Merriënboer et al. 2003).”
Zitter, I., & Hoeve, A. (2012) · OECD education working papers · doi:10.1787/5k97785xwdvf-en · Cited by 71
Combining cognitive and affective support in order to promote learning
Huk, T., & Ludwigs, S. (2008) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.09.001 · Cited by 75
Curry, T. M. (2014) · Design Studies · doi:10.1016/j.destud.2014.04.003 · Cited by 72
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Elementary school students’ strategic learning: does task-type matter?
Malmberg, J., Järvelä, S., & Kirschner, P. A. (2013) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-013-9108-5 · Cited by 71
“The coding categories were based on the Weinstein and Mayer (1986) categorization of general learning strategies.”
MethodSelf-citationOptimal self-explanation prompt design in dynamic multi-representational learning environments
Yeh, Y.-F., Chen, M.-C., Hung, P., & Hwang, G. (2009) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.10.013 · Cited by 73
Whole-Task Models in Education
van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Kester, L. (2007) · doi:10.4324/9780203880869.ch35 · Cited by 62
Self-citationSelf-Regulated Learning in Technology Enhanced Learning Environments
Carneiro, R., Lefrere, P., Steffens, K., & Underwood, J. (2011) · SensePublishers eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-6091-654-0 · Cited by 111
Kozan, K., Erçetin, G., & Richardson, J. C. (2015) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2015.09.001 · Cited by 64
Examining Instructional Design Principles Applied by Experienced Designers in Practice
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Towards an understanding of instructional design heuristics: an exploratory Delphi study
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Mooij, T. (2005) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2005.07.004 · Cited by 67
“In other research, van Merriënboer (1997) and van Merriënboer, Kirschner, and Kester (2003) have concentrated on the development of a theoretical framework and instructional software for complex learning.”
BackgroundImlig-Iten, N., & Petko, D. (2018) · Simulation & Gaming · doi:10.1177/1046878118779088 · Cited by 61
“Various studies have shown that explanations, instructional support as well as time spent on task have an influence on learning gain and motivation (Landers & Landers, 2015; Leutner, 1993; van Merriänboer, Kirschner, & Kester, 2003; Zhang, Chen, Sun, & Reid, 2004).”
BackgroundDesigning E-learning environments for flexible activity and instruction
Wilson, B. (2004) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02504720 · Cited by 64
How Does Cognitive Load Interact with Self-Regulated Learning? A Dynamic and Integrative Model
Wang, T., & Lajoie, S. P. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09794-6 · Cited by 84
A Design Perspective on the School-Work Boundary: A Hybrid Curriculum Model
Zitter, I., Hoeve, A., & de Bruijn, E. (2016) · Vocations and Learning · doi:10.1007/s12186-016-9150-y · Cited by 69
Zhou, M., & Lam, K. K. L. (2019) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-019-09646-7 · Cited by 63
“…is insufficient; appropriate scaffolding or other support should be provided or embedded in the searching environment to guide learners in this process (van Merriënboer et al. 2003) to enable students to acquire the self-regulatory skills required to solve online search tasks (Lazonder 2001).”
BackgroundScharfenberg, F., Bogner, F. X., & Klautke, S. (2007) · Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education · doi:10.1002/bmb.1 · Cited by 62
“This is especially true with regard to authentic learning tasks [68].”
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Josephsen, J. (2015) · Clinical Simulation in Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.ecns.2015.02.004 · Cited by 70
Timing of Information Presentation in Learning Statistics
Kester, L., Kirschner, P. A., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2004) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1023/b:truc.0000024191.27560.e3 · Cited by 60
Self-citationResearch on cognitive load theory: Application to e-learning
Morrison, G. R., & Anglin, G. J. (2005) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02504801 · Cited by 64
Content and language integration at universities? Collaborative reflections
Wilkinson, R. (2018) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.1080/13670050.2018.1491948 · Cited by 67
“…2014; cf. ‘zone of proximal development’, Vygotsky 1978), which suggests a role for instructional design theory (Reigeluth 1999; but see also Van Merriënboer, Kirschner, and Kester 2003) in that content learning in EMI programmes can be construed as a highly complex task which, in the absence…”
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Self-citationUsing cognitive load theory to structure computer‐based learning including MOOCs
Chen, O., Woolcott, G., & Sweller, J. (2017) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12188 · Cited by 69
Chen, C. (2010) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.01.015 · Cited by 56
Learning stoichiometry: a comparison of text and multimedia formats
Evans, K. L., Yaron, D., & Leinhardt, G. (2008) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/b812409b · Cited by 56
Principled animation design improves comprehension of complex dynamics
Lowe, R., & Boucheix, J. (2016) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.06.005 · Cited by 62
Technology enhanced distance learning should not forget how learning happens
Surma, T., & Kirschner, P. A. (2020) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106390 · Cited by 66
Self-citationCaskurlu, S., Richardson, J. C., Alamri, H. A., Chartier, K., Farmer, T., Janakiraman, S., Strait, M., & Yang, M. (2021) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13043 · Cited by 55
Larmuseau, C., Vanneste, P., Cornelis, J. P., Desmet, P., & Depaepe, F. (2019) · Frontline Learning Research · doi:10.14786/flr.v7i2.403 · Cited by 60
Sweller, J., Ayres, P., & Kalyuga, S. (2011) · Cognitive Load Theory · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-8126-4_12 · Cited by 68
Keller, J. M. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1250-3_2 · Cited by 54
Repetition and dual coding in procedural multimedia presentations
Brunyé, T. T., Taylor, H. A., & Rapp, D. N. (2007) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1396 · Cited by 61
Talk to me personally: Personalization of language style in computer-based learning
Reichelt, M., Kämmerer, F., Niegemann, H. M., & Zander, S. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.03.005 · Cited by 54
Effects of multidimensional concept maps on fourth graders’ learning in web-based computer course
Huang, H.-S., Chiou, C., Chiang, H., Lai, S.-H., Huang, C.-Y., & Chou, Y.-Y. (2011) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.10.016 · Cited by 52
Explorations in Learning and the Brain
de Jong, T., van Gog, T., Jenks, K., Manlove, S., van Hell, J. G., Jolles, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., van Leeuwen, T. H., & Boschloo, A. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-89512-3 · Cited by 55
Self-citationDiscussing dissection in anatomy education
Bergman, E. M. (2015) · Perspectives on Medical Education · doi:10.1007/s40037-015-0207-7 · Cited by 53
Bennell, C., Blaskovits, B., Jenkins, B., Semple, T., Khanizadeh, A., Brown, A. S., & Jones, N. J. (2020) · Policing An International Journal · doi:10.1108/pijpsm-06-2020-0092 · Cited by 65
The Role of Goal Orientation and Self-Efficacy in Learning from Web-Based Worked Examples
Crippen, K. J., Biesinger, K. D., Muis, K. R., & Orgill, M. (2009) · The Journal of Interactive Learning Research · Cited by 52
Kwan, C., Pusic, M. V., Pecaric, M. R., Weerdenburg, K. D., Tessaro, M. O., & Boutis, K. (2019) · AEM Education and Training · doi:10.1002/aet2.10375 · Cited by 51
“To facilitate learning of complex tasks, instructional design models recommend intentionally alternating part-task with wholetask training.(8) In this light, e-learning provides an opportunity to expose learners to an image interpretation learning experience (i.”
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“However, the maximum heuristic worked examples do not allow for practicing transfer of these skills to other, less scaffolded tasks (van Merriënboer et al., 2003).”
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Improving academic learning from computer-based narrative games
Pilegard, C., & Mayer, R. E. (2015) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.12.002 · Cited by 64
Lombardi, D., Bailey, J. M., Bickel, E. S., & Burrell, S. (2018) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.06.008 · Cited by 54
Multimodal Learning Analytics to Inform Learning Design: Lessons Learned from Computing Education
Mangaroska, K., Sharma, K., Gašević, D., & Giannakos, M. N. (2020) · Journal of Learning Analytics · doi:10.18608/jla.2020.73.7 · Cited by 58
Integrating Reform‐Oriented Math Instruction in Special Education Settings
Bottge, B. A., Rueda, E., Laroque, P. T., Serlin, R. C., & Kwon, J. (2007) · Learning Disabilities Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1540-5826.2007.00234.x · Cited by 50
Individual Differences and Cognitive Load Theory
Plass, J. L., Kalyuga, S., & Leutner, D. (2010) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511844744.006 · Cited by 57
Scaffolding and web concordancers as support for language learning
Chang, W.-L., & Sun, Y. (2009) · Computer Assisted Language Learning · doi:10.1080/09588220903184518 · Cited by 49
“Furthermore, the use of scaffolding prompts can guide students in their knowledge construction, knowledge integration, and knowledge representation during their work on complex learning tasks (Bell & Linn, 2000; Van Merrie¨nboer, Kirschner, & Kester, 2003).”
BackgroundResultResearch Paradigms and Perspectives on Learning
van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & de Bruin, A. B. H. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3185-5_2 · Cited by 54
Self-citationDesigning for online computer-based clinical simulations: Evaluation of instructional approaches
Dubovi, I. (2018) · Nurse Education Today · doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2018.07.001 · Cited by 53
Thomas, C. L., & Kirby, L. A. J. (2020) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-020-09509-2 · Cited by 50
Noroozi, O., Busstra, M. C., Mulder, M., Biemans, H. J. A., Tobi, H., Geelen, A., Veer, P. V., & Chizari, M. (2011) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-011-9217-2 · Cited by 46
“The effect of timing of information presentation in IDLM on student learning performance has been a subject of interest to many researchers across a range of disciplines (e.g. Jonassen 1999; Kester 2003; Van Merriënboer et al. 2003).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe effects of self-monitoring on strategy use and academic performance: A meta-analysis
Guo, L. (2022) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2022.101939 · Cited by 59
Pan, Z., Xie, Z., Liu, T., & Xia, T. (2024) · Systems · doi:10.3390/systems12050176 · Cited by 63
Note-taking in the college classroom as evidence of generative learning
Stefanou, C. R., Hoffman, L. M., & Vielee, N. (2007) · Learning Environments Research · doi:10.1007/s10984-007-9033-0 · Cited by 46
Suazo-Flores, E., Ward, J., Richardson, S. E., Grant, M. R., Cox, D., Kastberg, S. E., & Chapman, O. (2020) · doi:10.51272/pmena.42.2020 · Cited by 46
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Designing support to facilitate learning in powerful electronic learning environments
Kester, L., Kirschner, P. A., & Corbalan, G. (2006) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2006.10.001 · Cited by 50
Self-citationShe, H., Cheng, M., Li, T.-W., et al. (2012) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2012.02.005 · Cited by 45
Differential benefits of situated instructional prompts
Horz, H., Winter, C., & Fries, S. (2008) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.07.001 · Cited by 45
Authenticity of instruction and student performance: a prospective randomised trial
LaRochelle, J. S., Durning, S. J., Pangaro, L. N., Artino, A. R., van der Vleuten, C. P. M., & Schuwirth, L. (2011) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2923.2011.03994.x · Cited by 44
Caspari‐Gnann, I., & Graulich, N. (2019) · International Journal of Physics & Chemistry Education · doi:10.51724/ijpce.v11i2.39 · Cited by 45
Information presentation and troubleshooting in electrical circuits
Kester, L., Kirschner, P. A., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2004) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/69032000072809 · Cited by 44
“…can easily lead to cognitive overload when presented during practice) is best presented before the learner starts relevant task practice, while procedural information (i.e. information with a low element interactivity) is best presented during relevant task practice (van Merriënboer et al. 2003).”
BackgroundSelf-citationOperationalising elaboration theory for simulation instruction design: a Delphi study
Haji, F. A., Khan, R., Regehr, G., Ng, G., de Ribaupierre, S., & Dubrowski, A. (2015) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/medu.12726 · Cited by 43
Bennell, C., Jones, N. J., & Corey, S. (2007) · Psychology Public Policy and Law · doi:10.1037/1076-8971.13.1.35 · Cited by 48
Improving police training from a cognitive load perspective
Mugford, R., Corey, S., & Bennell, C. (2013) · Policing An International Journal · doi:10.1108/13639511311329723 · Cited by 52
Sentence length for revealing the cognitive load reversal effect in text comprehension
Mikk, J. (2008) · Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/03055690701811164 · Cited by 43
“The recommendations deduced from the cognitive load theory (CLT effects) are as follows: (1) Open-ended tasks, worked examples, and completion tasks pose a less demanding cognitive load on the learners’ mind than fixed-goal tasks (Sweller 1988; Van Merriënboer, Kirschner, and Kester 2003).”
MethodApplied Linguistics and Language Teacher Education: What We Know
Bartels, N. (2005) · Educational linguistics · doi:10.1007/1-4020-2954-3_23 · Cited by 44
Embedded instruction to learn information problem solving: Effects of a whole task approach
Frèrejean, J., Velthorst, G., van Strien, J. L. H., Kirschner, P. A., & Brand‐Gruwel, S. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.08.043 · Cited by 51
“The 4C/ID model underlines the prevailing view that whole-task instruction is more e ff ective to teach complex skills such as IPS than fragmented, part-task instruction (Lim, Reiser, & Olina, 2009; Van Merriënboer, Kirschner, & Kester, 2003).”
Self-citationA Constructivist Approach for Digital Learning: Malaysian Schools Case Study.
Sultan, W. H., Woods, P. C., & Koo, A. C. (2011) · Educational Technology & Society · Cited by 42
Behmke, D. A., & Atwood, C. H. (2013) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/c3rp20153h · Cited by 41
Mastery-style homework exercises in introductory physics courses: Implementation matters
Gutmann, B., Gladding, G. E., Lundsgaard, M., & Stelzer, T. J. (2018) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.14.010128 · Cited by 41
Multimedia Learning with Simulations and Microworlds
Plass, J. L., & Schwartz, R. N. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139547369.036 · Cited by 49
“Simulations are complex learning environments that pose a number of challenges for learners (van Merri ë nboer et al., 2003 ).”
BackgroundScaffolding peer-assessment skills: Risk of interference with learning domain-specific skills?
Könings, K. D., van Zundert, M. J., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2018) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018.11.007 · Cited by 46
Self-citationProcess and outcome evaluation of a CBME intervention guided by program theory
Hamza, D. M., Ross, S., & Oandasan, I. (2020) · Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1111/jep.13344 · Cited by 40
Darabi, A., Nelson, D. W., & Palanki, S. (2005) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2005.11.001 · Cited by 40
Metadata
- Authors
- van Merrienboer, J. J. G., Kirschner, P. A., & Kester, L.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- ORCID
- Kirschner, Paul A.
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2003-01-01
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 5-13
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W2127791224
- Semantic Scholar
- 5672feb8343dabd71bddf54a434d641ca7a5b7b8
- Cited by
- 857
- References
- 89
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 51 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 33 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 36 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 41 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 45 · 2015: 48 · 2014: 44 · 2013: 43 · 2012: 42
- FWCI
- 39.13
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- complex learning, cognitive load theory, scaffolding, instructional design, authentic learning tasks, transfer of learning, design model
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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