The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
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- Glaser, R. (1987). Further notes toward a psychology of instruction. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Advances in instructional psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 1-39). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
- Kolb, D. A. (1971). Individual learning styles and the learning process (Working Paper No. 535-71). Cambridge, MA: Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
- Kolb, D. A. & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Studies of group process (pp. 33-57). New York: Wiley.
- Roblyer M. D., 1996, Learning and Leading With Technology, 24, 12
- Trafton, J. G. & Reiser, R. J. (1993). The contribution of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition. In M. Polson (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1017-1022). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
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Wijnia, L. (2016) · Health Professions Education · doi:10.1016/j.hpe.2016.09.004 · Cited by 8
Emden, M., & Baur, A. (2016) · Zeitschrift für Didaktik der Naturwissenschaften · doi:10.1007/s40573-016-0052-1 · Cited by 8
Adaptive Feedback In Simulation-based Training
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Krakowski, M. (2017) · Contemporary Jewry · doi:10.1007/s12397-017-9205-x · Cited by 10
Bildungsforschung: Die Perspektive der Forschung zu Lernen und Instruktion
Renkl, A. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-531-19981-8_40 · Cited by 11
Participatory Processes and Integrated Modelling Supporting Nexus Implementations
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“However, experiments have also emphasised the importance of guidance during the discovery process (Kirschner et al., 2006; Mayer, 2004), which ChaRL provides through a highly structured five-step process.”
BackgroundLawanto, O., Minichiello, A., Uziak, J., et al. (2018) · International Education Studies · doi:10.5539/ies.v11n7p43 · Cited by 8
Productive Thinking in Place of Problem-Solving?
Lumbelli, L. (2018) · Gestalt theory · doi:10.2478/gth-2018-0013 · Cited by 8
The role of Action Learning in supporting cross-cultural adaptation of international students
Collins, H., & Callaghan, D. R. (2018) · Action Learning Research and Practice · doi:10.1080/14767333.2018.1510633 · Cited by 8
“…adopted approaches variously named ‘discovery learning, problem-based learning, inquiry learning, experiential learning, and constructivist learning’ (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006, 75), concluded that after 50 years of experimentation there is no evidence to support SC approaches, and…”
BackgroundLevinson, M., Kelly, D., Zahariou, K., Johnson, M. D., Jackman, C., & Mackenzie, S. L. C. (2016) · Internal Medicine Journal · doi:10.1111/imj.13332 · Cited by 8
Black, S., & Allen, J. D. (2019) · The Reference Librarian · doi:10.1080/02763877.2019.1571469 · Cited by 9
“Scaffolding and achievement in problem-based and inquiry learning: A response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006).”
“Reflective of my best work”: Promoting inquiry-based learning in a hybrid graduate history course
Sleeter, N., Schrum, K., Swan, A. K., et al. (2019) · Arts and Humanities in Higher Education · doi:10.1177/1474022219833662 · Cited by 8
“Kirschner et al. (2006) question student learning gains when engaged in inquiry-based learning and in particular fault inquiry-based learning models that feature minimal guidance for students.”
BackgroundAn Analysis of the Effectiveness of the Constructivist Approach in Teaching Business Statistics
Maheshwari, G., & Thomas, S. (2017) · Informing Science and IT Education Conference · doi:10.28945/3678 · Cited by 8
Professor Goals and Student Experiences in Traditional IBL Real Analysis: a Case Study
Dawkins, P. C., Oehrtman, M., & Mahavier, W. T. (2019) · International Journal of Research in Undergraduate Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s40753-019-00095-4 · Cited by 9
Oygür, I., & Thompson, J. A. A. (2019) · Creativity and Innovation Management · doi:10.1111/caim.12347 · Cited by 8
The Development of Innovation Skills through Project Based Learning
Asbjornsen, D. J. (2015) · International Dialogues on Education Journal · doi:10.53308/ide.v2i2.191 · Cited by 8
Introducing Text Analytics as a Graduate Business School Course
Edgington, T. M. (2011) · Journal of Information Technology Education Innovations in Practice · doi:10.28945/1513 · Cited by 8
Attitudes toward Direct Instruction in Western Australian primary and secondary schools
Hammond, L. S. (2022) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2022.103651 · Cited by 8
The TPACK of Dynamic Representations
Bell, L., Juersivich, N., Hammond, T. C., & Bell, R. L. (2011) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-60960-750-0.ch005 · Cited by 8
Critical Perspectives on Teaching, Learning and Leadership
(2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-6667-7 · Cited by 11
Learning Analytics for Knowledge Creation and Inventing in K-12: A Systematic Review
Apiola, M.-V., Lipponen, S., Seitamaa, A., Korhonen, T., & Hakkarainen, K. (2022) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-10467-1_15 · Cited by 7
Bacasdoon, J., & Bolmsten, J. (2022) · TransNav the International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation · doi:10.12716/1001.16.02.15 · Cited by 8
“…some authors as instructed knowledge versus constructive knowledge (Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Scruggs & Mastropieri, 2007), explicit instruction versus minimally guided instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006), and traditional didactic instruction versus progressive methods (Adkisson & McCoy, 2006).”
BackgroundMicro-Level Design for Multimedia-Enhanced Online Courses
Snelson, C., & Elison‐Bowers, P. (2007) · ScholarWorks (Boise State University) · Cited by 8
Bachmann, C. (2014) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s2055-364120140000002021 · Cited by 8
Miiro, R. F., Mazur, R., & Matsiko, F. B. (2012) · The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension · doi:10.1080/1389224x.2012.670051 · Cited by 8
Exploring Mental Models of Learning and Instruction in Teacher Education
Wilke, R. A., & Losh, S. C. (2012) · Action in Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/01626620.2012.693241 · Cited by 9
“Given the recent debates in the field of educational psychology about the effect of instruction on learning, it is unlikely that any conclusions regarding an ideal versus flawed target model will be decided upon soon (see Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006 ; Schmidt, Loyens, Van Gog, & Paas, 2007 ).”
BackgroundExperiential Education in Kindergarten
de Bilde, J., Boonen, T., Speybroeck, S., Fraine, B. D., Damme, J. V., & Goos, M. (2015) · The Elementary School Journal · doi:10.1086/683802 · Cited by 10
“, stimulation) benefited less able learners (Kirschner et al., 2006; Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003).”
BackgroundInvestigating Knowledge Acquisition among Faculty Members
Kaba, A., & Ramaiah, C. K. (2018) · Interdisciplinary Journal of Information Knowledge and Management · doi:10.28945/3940 · Cited by 8
Batool, T., Habiba, U. E., & Saeed, A. (2019) · Cited by 8
Problem-based learning for teaching new technologies
Humpe, A., & Brehm, L. (2020) · IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON) · doi:10.1109/educon45650.2020.9125376 · Cited by 8
“This issue has been noted before by Kirschner et al. [19].”
Hybrid model for learner modelling and feedback prioritisation in exploratory learning
Cocea, M., & Magoulas, G. D. (2009) · International Journal of Hybrid Intelligent Systems · doi:10.3233/his-2009-0097 · Cited by 8
“However, discovery learning without guidance and support appears to be less effective than step-by-step guiding learning environments [27].”
Case-Based Instruction in Early Childhood Teacher Preparation: Does It Work?
Florez, I. R. (2011) · Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/10901027.2011.572227 · Cited by 8
“Klein (1999) used case studies to help EC preservice teachers understand the importance of play in EC education. Schrader et al. (2003) developed extensive, internet-based digital cases to enhance EC preservice teachers’ understanding of emergent literacy.”
MethodUnpacking the hidden efficacies of learning in productive failure
Hung, D. W. L., Chen, V., & Lim, S. H. (2009) · Learning Inquiry · doi:10.1007/s11519-008-0037-1 · Cited by 8
“Contrary to the prevailing conception that scaffolding is always constructive (Ge and Land 2003; Cho and Jonassen 2002; Kirschner et al. 2006 ), Kapur (2008) argues for un-scaffolded, ill-structured problem-solving processes leading to learning which has a hidden efficacy in the longer term.”
BackgroundBalancing scaffolding and complexity in open ended group projects (OEGPs)
Daniels, M., & Hauer, A. (2007) · IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie.2007.4418091 · Cited by 8
Paterson, L. (2022) · Scottish Affairs · doi:10.3366/scot.2022.0430 · Cited by 8
A Case Study of Teachers’ and Administrators’ Experiences Integrating Project-Based Learning
Harrigan, G. (2014) · ScholarWorks (Walden University) · Cited by 8
Shareef, M. (2010) · Unitec Research Bank (Unitec Institute of Technology) · Cited by 8
The assessment of learning outcomes of computer modeling in secondary science education
van Borkulo, S. P. (2009) · University of Twente Research Information · doi:10.3990/1.9789090243948 · Cited by 8
(Inter)dependent learning: Learning is interaction
Kirschner, P. A. (2006) · Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) · Cited by 9
Self-citationUNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS' CONCEPTIONS OF INEQUALITIES
Halmaghi, E. F. (2011) · Summit (Simon Fraser University) · Cited by 8
van der Meij, H., van der Meij, J., & Harmsen, R. (2012) · University of Twente Research Information · Cited by 8
GeoGebra, Enhancing Creative Mathematical Reasoning
Olsson, J. (2017) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology) · doi:10.13140/rg.2.2.35210.67525 · Cited by 8
Mamun, M. A. A. (2018) · The University of Queensland · doi:10.14264/uql.2018.607 · Cited by 9
Fernández, M. (2014) · NSUWorks (Nova Southeastern University) · Cited by 8
Assessment of an educational classroom app’s impact on preschoolers’ early numeracy skills
Tazouti, Y., Thomas, A., Hoareau, L., Jarlégan, A., Hubert, B., & Luxembourger, C. (2023) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-023-00698-1 · Cited by 16
“When creating the app in question, called AppLINOU, we followed Kucirko-va’s (2016) co-design framework and adopted an evidence-based approach to designing the app’s content (e.g., Chodura et al., 2015; Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
The personal curriculum: conceptions, intentions and enactments of learning across working life
Billett, S. R. (2023) · International Journal of Lifelong Education · doi:10.1080/02601370.2023.2245150 · Cited by 16
“Much of this is premised on discover efforts along being inadequate (Kirschner et al., 2006; Mayer, 2004).”
BackgroundŠikl, R., Brücknerová, K., Švédová, H., Děchtěrenko, F., Ugwitz, P., Chmelík, J., Pokorná, H., & Juřík, V. (2024) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12973 · Cited by 10
Zachrich, L., Wagner, W., Bertram, C., & Trautwein, U. (2024) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2024.101921 · Cited by 17
Abadiga, Z. A., Koyas, K., & Tulu, A. H. (2024) · School Science and Mathematics · doi:10.1111/ssm.12676 · Cited by 7
Long, T., Zheng, Z., Shi, Y., Tong, M., & Liu, Z. (2024) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-024-10404-7 · Cited by 7
“…activities including posing scientifically oriented questions, guiding students to plan and design experiments, guiding students to form scientific explanations based on the evidence, guiding students to communicate and collaborate, and organizing reflection and evaluation (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Faria, A., & Miranda, G. L. (2024) · Information · doi:10.3390/info15090566 · Cited by 12
Yazıcı, G., & Doğan, F. (2024) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2024.101651 · Cited by 10
Emergent group understanding: Investigating intersubjectivity in sociotechnical interdependencies
Mørch, A. I., Andersen, R., Eie, S., & Mifsud, L. (2024) · International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning · doi:10.1007/s11412-024-09432-5 · Cited by 7
“However, some contemporary scholars have criticized and warned against the poor instructional design (Kirschner et al., 2006) and the lack of conceptual clarity of constructivism (Akkerman et al., 2007), pointing to a constructivist dilemma or an incompatibility between creative (whether personal…”
Ouyang, F., Zhang, N., Chen, Y., & Shao, X. (2024) · Technology Pedagogy and Education · doi:10.1080/1475939x.2024.2437036 · Cited by 7
“Third, consistent with previous research (Kirschner et al., 2006), the minimally guided instruction was less likely to lead to satisfying results.”
Beyond Good AI: The Need for Sound Learning Theories in AIED
Sinha, T. (2025) · Technology Knowledge and Learning · doi:10.1007/s10758-025-09843-9 · Cited by 13
“For example, if learning is defined primarily as knowledge acquisition (Sfard, 1998 ), perhaps we should design for knowledge trans - mission by sequencing content to provide full-guided worked examples, instant stepwise feedback and explanations (Kirschner et al., 2006; Sweller, 2020 ).”
Active learning strategies in video learning: A meta-analysis
Zhang, Y., Li, R., Pi, Z., & Yang, J. (2025) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2025.100708 · Cited by 29
Cai, Z., Liu, C., Yang, Y., & Li, B. (2025) · The Internet and Higher Education · doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2025.101044 · Cited by 10
An experience report on improving constructive alignment in an introduction to programming
Gaspar, A., & Langevin, S. (2012) · Journal of computing sciences in colleges · Cited by 7
Problem-based teaching in engineering education
Kuimova, M. V., Burleigh, D. D., & Trofimova, A. (2016) · MATEC Web of Conferences · doi:10.1051/matecconf/20164806006 · Cited by 7
Chen, W., & Ding, M. (2018) · Frontiers of Education in China · doi:10.1007/s11516-018-0031-z · Cited by 7
“Given that teachers in prior studies either overlooked worked examples (Kirschner et al., 2006; Stigler & Hiebert, 1999) or presented repetitive examples (Ding & Carlson, 2013), we coded the “frequency” of example tasks in each textbook and enacted lesson.”
BackgroundSpodbujanje aktivnega študija, kot ga zaznavajo študenti
Košir, K., Perše, T. V., Ograjšek, S., & Grmek, M. I. (2020) · Andragoška spoznanja · doi:10.4312/as.26.2.33-46 · Cited by 7
Morales, M., Acosta, K., & Rodríguez, C. (2022) · Revista eureka sobre enseñanza y divulgación de las ciencias · doi:10.25267/rev_eureka_ensen_divulg_cienc.2022.v19.i2.2201 · Cited by 7
‘We learn from our mistakes’: Nursing students’ perceptions of a productive failure simulation
Palominos, E., Levett-Jones, T. L., Power, T., & Martínez‐Maldonado, R. (2022) · Collegian Journal of the Royal College of Nursing Australia · doi:10.1016/j.colegn.2022.02.006 · Cited by 10
Pushing against the grain: Networks and their systems for sustaining and spreading deeper learning
Hernández, L. E., Darling‐Hammond, L., Adams, J., Bradley, K., & Grand, D. D. (2022) · Journal of Educational Change · doi:10.1007/s10833-022-09467-1 · Cited by 11
“In the absence of these supportive structures and an understanding of how to integrate direct instruction appropriately with inquiry-based learning, progressive reforms have sometimes failed (see Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundWesenberg, L., Krieglstein, F., Jansen, S., Rey, G. D., Beege, M., & Schneider, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1032003 · Cited by 9
“In contrast, strategies such as discovery learning are rejected (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialApplying Eye-Tracking Technology in the Field of Entrepreneurship Education
Kaminskienè, L., Horlenko, K., & Chu, L. Y. (2022) · FGF studies in small business and entrepreneurship · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-11371-0_8 · Cited by 9
Consistency of Inquiry Strategies Across Subsequent Activities in Different Domains
Cock, J. M., Roll, I., & Käser, T. (2023) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-36336-8_34 · Cited by 7
La enseñanza explícita en la discusión didáctica actual
Gori, A., Diuk, B., & Feldman, D. (2022) · Estudios pedagógicos · doi:10.4067/s0718-07052022000400377 · Cited by 7
Coyte, E. (2023) · FEBS Open Bio · doi:10.1002/2211-5463.13687 · Cited by 12
“For novice students in particular, more guided instruction may be effective in reducing excessive load on working memory [33].”
BackgroundLai, R. P. (2023) · STEM Education Review · doi:10.54844/stemer.2023.0460 · Cited by 7
Biological evolution and human cognition are analogous information processing systems
Castro-Alonso, J. C., Hidalgo, A. A., & Sweller, J. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1330345 · Cited by 7
Self-citationMoran, D., Taylor, J. A., & MacNamara, Á. (2024) · Sports Coaching Review · doi:10.1080/21640629.2024.2335450 · Cited by 7
“When applied to game-form training, high fidelity and minimal guidance might yield high activity levels but not necessarily learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
Chen, R. (2024) · Research and Advances in Education · doi:10.56397/rae.2024.04.05 · Cited by 7
Rhodes, M. J., Visscher, A. J., van Keulen, H., & Gijsel, M. A. R. (2024) · European Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.20897/ejsteme/14570 · Cited by 14
“In our view, inquiry-and design-based education should not be confused with unguided discovery learning without any form of direct instruction or transmission of knowledge as directions also have its place in inquiry and design education (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundSamuelsson, R. (2024) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105089 · Cited by 12
Hülshoff, A., & Jucks, R. (2024) · Computers and Education Open · doi:10.1016/j.caeo.2024.100199 · Cited by 9
Koseda, E. M., Reeve, C., Fascia, M., McIntosh, B., & Cohen, I. K. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-67667-3_30 · Cited by 10
Maričić, M., Anđić, B., Mumcu, F., Marić, M. R., Gordić, S., Ranitović, M. G., & Cvjetičanin, S. (2025) · Eurasia Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education · doi:10.29333/ejmste/15798 · Cited by 11
“…of learning, and from whom greater engagement is expected, where the teacher is less the one who gives concrete guidelines and solutions, and the student constructs knowledge more independently and comes to the relevant answers (Kirschner et al., 2006; Linder et al., 2016; Stockard et al., 2018).”
Mapping theoretical approaches: a scoping review of data analytics in higher education
Ncube, M. M., & Ngulube, P. (2025) · Discover Education · doi:10.1007/s44217-025-00647-8 · Cited by 6
“As Ültanır [59] and Kirschner et al. [60] suggest, while constructiv-ism offers valuable insights into the learner’s active role in meaning-making, its practical application in instructional design necessitates integration with more prescriptive learning theories.”
InfluentialBaldwin, E. D., Mainieri, T. L., & Brookover, R. S. (2013) · SCHOLE A Journal of Leisure Studies and Recreation Education · doi:10.1080/1937156x.2013.11949696 · Cited by 7
Chen, J.-Q., & McCray, J. S. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-4678-1_16 · Cited by 7
Would Linked MOOC Courseware Enhance Information Search?
Li, S.-W. D., & Zue, V. W. (2015) · IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT) · doi:10.1109/icalt.2015.71 · Cited by 7
“EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND RESULTS”
BackgroundDesign, mise en œuvre et évaluation d’une formation hybride
Class, B., & Schneider, D. (2012) · Distances et médiations des savoirs · doi:10.4000/dms.84 · Cited by 7
Progressive assessment of student engagement with web‐based guided learning
Katuk, N. (2013) · Interactive Technology and Smart Education · doi:10.1108/itse-11-2012-0023 · Cited by 7
“The results of past studies in educational psychology emphasizes that direct guidance should be given to students during learning process (Kirschner et al., 2006) to avoid misconception and frustration due to insufficient information required during knowledge acquisition process.”
Measuring active learning to predict course quality
Taylor, J. E., & Ku, H. (2011) · Performance Improvement Quarterly · doi:10.1002/piq.20104 · Cited by 7
Syvänen, A., Muukkonen, J., & Sihvonen, M. (2009) · doi:10.1145/1621841.1621868 · Cited by 7
The "Community Services" Course through Distance Education: Evaluation of Primary School Students
Şakar, A. N., & Öztürk, Ö. (2011) · DergiPark (Istanbul University) · doi:10.17718/tojde.30514 · Cited by 7
Investigation of Conceptual Change about Double-Slit Interference in Secondary School Physics.
Kocakülah, M. S., & Kural, M. (2010) · The International Journal of Environmental and Science Education · Cited by 7
Aligning technology with learning theories
Alimisis, D., & Zoulias, E. (2013) · Interactive Technology and Smart Education · doi:10.1108/itse-05-2013-0011 · Cited by 7
The curse of the teenage learner
Mossop, L. H. (2014) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/medu.12405 · Cited by 7
How to educate and train science teachers in IBSEexperimentation
Trna, J. (2013) · Cited by 7
The Admiralty Code: A cognitive tool for self-directed learning
Hanson, J. M. (2015) · UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) · Cited by 7
Näykki, P. (2014) · Cited by 7
Teachers’ ‘Small Stories’ About Curriculum Reform in South Africa: ‘Square Peg in a Round Hole’
Naidoo, D. G., & Muthukrishna, N. (2014) · Journal of Social Sciences · doi:10.1080/09718923.2014.11893257 · Cited by 7
“It seems that existing constructivist views have ‘become ideological and often epistemo-logically opposed to the presentation and explanation of knowledge’ (Kirschner et al. 2006: 84).”
Amir, N., & Subramaniam, R. (2015) · STEM Education · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-7363-2.ch080 · Cited by 7
A presentation framework for programming in programing lectures
Ebert, M., & Ring, M. (2016) · IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON) · doi:10.1109/educon.2016.7474580 · Cited by 7
“argue that beginners do benefit from this instructional design in the early stages of schemata building [14].”
BackgroundThe Efficacy of Problem-Based Learning in an Instrumental Analyse Laboratory
Seyhan, H. G. (2016) · Higher Education Studies · doi:10.5539/hes.v6n4p100 · Cited by 7
A framework for writing learning agreements
Clear, T., McDermott, R., Parsjö, E., et al. (2016) · 2022 IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie.2016.7757718 · Cited by 7
Developing Teaching Presence in Online Learning Through Shared Stakeholder Responsibility
Johnson, C., & Altowairiki, N. F. (2016) · Advances in higher education and professional development book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-1851-8.ch008 · Cited by 7
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
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