The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
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- Trafton, J. G. & Reiser, R. J. (1993). The contribution of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition. In M. Polson (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1017-1022). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 3,101–3,200 of 6,869
Cognitive Load Theory: Implications for Nursing Education and Research
Chen, R., Dore, K., Grierson, L. E. M., Hatala, R., & Norman, G. (2014) · Canadian Journal of Nursing Research · doi:10.1177/084456211404600204 · Cited by 8
Rambo-Hernandez, K. E., Atadero, R., & Balgopal, M. M. (2017) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2017.1330947 · Cited by 7
“Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) argued that although there are advocates for both direct instruction and for minimally guided instruction, the research indicates that science (and we would expect all STEM) learning outcomes are not necessarily greater when there is minimal guidance.”
BackgroundFrambach, J., Manuel, B. A. F., Fumo, A., Groosjohan, B., van der Vleuten, C. P. M., & Driessen, E. W. (2017) · Education for Health · doi:10.4103/1357-6283.210515 · Cited by 10
Brandi, A. C., & Garcia, R. E. (2017) · 2022 IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie.2017.8190489 · Cited by 7
Investigating Students' Mathematical Difficulties with Quadratic Equations.
O’Connor, B. R., & Norton, S. J. (2016) · Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia · Cited by 7
Singh, N., Gupta, R., & Mahalakshmi, V. N. (2018) · AJP Advances in Physiology Education · doi:10.1152/advan.00023.2018 · Cited by 7
“(11) suggested that instructional approaches with minimal guidance are less effective than instructional approaches with guidance.”
Mění se pohled učitelů na badatelsky orientovanou výuku?
Radvanová, S., Čížková, V., & Martinková, P. (2018) · Scientia in educatione · doi:10.14712/18047106.1054 · Cited by 7
Developing Scientific Inquiry in Technology-Enhanced Learning Environments
Chan, C. K. K., & Yang, Y. (2018) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-71054-9_11 · Cited by 11
The Design of Problem Based Learning and Effects on College Students' Critical Thinking
Jamiat, N. (2018) · International Conference on Education and E-Learning (ICEEL) · doi:10.1145/3291078.3291081 · Cited by 7
“PBL is a complex learning environment, which requires students to learn the content knowledge while solving the problem presented to them [19].”
BackgroundStudent Knowledge and Misconceptions
Lewis, C. M., Clancy, M. J., & Vahrenhold, J. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.028 · Cited by 7
Shapiro, R. B., & Tissenbaum, M. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.021 · Cited by 9
Computing Education Research Today
Fincher, S. A., Tenenberg, J., Dorn, B., Hundhausen, C., McCartney, R., & Murphy, L. (2019) · The Cambridge Handbook of Computing Education Research · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.003 · Cited by 7
Tinkering alone and together: Tracking the emergence of children's projects in a library workshop
Parekh, P., & Gee, E. R. (2019) · Learning Culture and Social Interaction · doi:10.1016/j.lcsi.2019.04.009 · Cited by 7
Vasankari, T., & Majanoja, A.-M. (2019) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-21151-6_16 · Cited by 6
Bodine, P. A., Mothapo, N. P., & Reardon, K. A. (2019) · Management Teaching Review · doi:10.1177/2379298119855704 · Cited by 7
Research-based learning in a transversal Entrepreneurship and Innovation undergraduate course
Camacho, M. H., Chiluiza, K., & Valcke, M. (2019) · Studies in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03075079.2019.1649385 · Cited by 10
“Also, Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) along with Colbert-White and Simpson (2017) point out that unguided instruction is less effective compared to methodologies that emphasize clear structure and guidance.”
BackgroundStructuring experiments in biology lessons through teacher feedback
Eckes, A., & Wilde, M. (2019) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2019.1668578 · Cited by 8
“To account for the scientific discovery environment and the questions that may arise from students while working on experiments, the structure is implemented as feedback as it is an invaluable tool to guide students in discovery settings (Kirschner et al., 2006; Moreno, 2004).”
MethodGodino, J. D., Burgos, M., & Wilhelmi, M. R. (2020) · Enseñanza de las Ciencias Revista de investigación y experiencias didácticas · doi:10.5565/rev/ensciencias.2906 · Cited by 7
Büning, C., & Wirth, C. (2020) · Bildung und Sport · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-25524-4_5 · Cited by 7
Case study: Developing long-term knowledge with Sprego
Csapó, G., Sebestyén, K., Csernoch, M., & Abari, K. (2020) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-020-10295-0 · Cited by 14
“However, this approach has been proved insufficient and ineffective (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundPedagogical constraints of physical literacy based on cognitive load theory
Dudley, D. A., Dean, H., Cairney, J., & Bergen, P. V. (2020) · Prospects · doi:10.1007/s11125-020-09496-9 · Cited by 9
Rokos, L., & Závodská, R. (2020) · Eurasia Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education · doi:10.29333/ejmste/9124 · Cited by 12
Children changing spaces, changing schools
Crook, D. J. (2020) · Children & Society · doi:10.1111/chso.12429 · Cited by 7
Ofori-Attah, K. D. (2021) · Athens Journal of Education · doi:10.30958/aje.8-2-2 · Cited by 12
Mobile learning: what is it and what are its possibilities?
Pegrum, M. A. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781316091968.015 · Cited by 7
Exploring the perceived learning of ‘students as researchers’ through two theoretical lenses
Bjørkvold, T., & Ryen, E. (2021) · Journal of Curriculum Studies · doi:10.1080/00220272.2021.1881168 · Cited by 7
“However, open inquiry is also criticized for offering students only minimal guidance and yielding a low level of learning results, which is also connected to subject-specific content (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundKleinert, S. I., Isaak, R. C., Textor, A., & Wilde, M. (2021) · Zeitschrift für Didaktik der Naturwissenschaften · doi:10.1007/s40573-021-00126-1 · Cited by 7
“Hier müssen Lehrpersonen klug abwägen, denn sehr deutlich anleitende Strukturierungen („Kochrezepte“) sind oft nicht hinreichend kognitiv aktivierend, sehr offene Aufgabenstellungen dagegen können zu Überforderungen der Lernenden führen (Hammann und Prenzel 2008; Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialAnakin, M., & McDowell, A. (2021) · Pharmacy Education · doi:10.46542/pe.2021.211.2938 · Cited by 7
D’une auto-prescription à une mise en œuvre d’investigation. Étude de cas en SVT au collège
Coquidé, M., & Flatter, E. (2015) · Recherches en éducation · doi:10.4000/ree.7495 · Cited by 7
How an inquiry-oriented textbook shaped a calculus instructor’s planning
Liakos, Y., Gerami, S., Mesa, V., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/0020739x.2021.1961171 · Cited by 7
“…although inquiry-oriented ways of teaching are often associated with improved student outcomes, the research on the relationship between inquiry and student outcomes has not always been consistent (see Freeman et al., 2014; Johnson et al., 2020; Kirschner et al., 2006; and Kogan & Laursen, 2014).”
ResultINTRODUCING CONDITIONAL ARRAY FORMULAS IN SPREADSHEET CLASSES
Csernoch, M. (2012) · University of Debrecen Electronic Archive (University of Debrecen) · Cited by 7
Experiments in Physics Teaching
Girwidz, R., Theyßen, H., & Widenhorn, R. (2021) · Challenges in physics education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-87391-2_10 · Cited by 7
Dvoryatkina, S. N., Merenkova, V. S., & Smirnov, E. I. (2021) · Perspectives of science and education · doi:10.32744/pse.2021.6.13 · Cited by 7
Redesigning the Future of Experiential Learning
Niman, N. B., & Chagnon, J. R. (2021) · Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice · doi:10.33423/jhetp.v21i8.4507 · Cited by 7
“…contrast to Kolb’s self-directed learning experiences, we have created an entire program comprised of guided experiences which are led by industry professionals and carefully crafted around a particular set of learning and developmental goals (Meyer, 2004; Kirschner et al., 2006; Nargundkar, 2014).”
BackgroundHaden, P. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.007 · Cited by 10
Cognitive Skills in Adolescents’ Self-Directed Learning Efficacy
Uus, Õ., Mettis, K., & Väljataga, T. (2022) · Creative Education · doi:10.4236/ce.2022.132035 · Cited by 7
Developing Teaching Presence in Online Learning Through Shared Stakeholder Responsibility
Johnson, C., & Altowairiki, N. F. (2020) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-3022-1.ch017 · Cited by 7
Kerres, M. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-25090-4_12-1 · Cited by 7
Jamil, S., & Bhuju, K. (2022) · Media Asia · doi:10.1080/01296612.2022.2067946 · Cited by 7
“Some critics of experiential learning argue that it is not very student-centered by virtue of experiments in controlled settings and strong instructional guidance, which may not lead to better capabilities of students to analyze and solve problems (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundContrastive Video Examples in Teacher Education: A Matter of Sequence and Prompts
Wilkes, T., Stark, L., Trempler, K., & Stark, R. (2022) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2022.869664 · Cited by 9
Individuelle Förderung mit digitalen Medien. Ein Problemaufriss
Schaumburg, H. (2022) · DDS – Die Deutsche Schule · doi:10.31244/dds.2022.03.02 · Cited by 8
Coulangeon, P., & Fougère, D. (2022) · British Journal of Sociology of Education · doi:10.1080/01425692.2022.2109593 · Cited by 8
“Meanwhile, project-based learning has been extensively criticized by those who emphasize the importance of students’ developing knowledge of specific content in traditional subject areas (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundDesigning Gaze-Aware Attention Feedback for Learning in Mixed Reality
Liu, S., Toreini, P., & Maedche, A. (2022) · doi:10.1145/3543758.3547565 · Cited by 7
The effect of microlevel and macrolevel signaling on learning with 360° videos
Beege, M., Nebel, S., Schneider, S., & Rey, G. D. (2022) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.4023 · Cited by 8
Landman, A., de Vries, D., & Binsch, O. (2022) · Military Psychology · doi:10.1080/08995605.2022.2144034 · Cited by 8
“According to Kirschner et al. (2006), classroom-style “direct instruction” is the most effective way to teach students new skills.”
BackgroundThe effectiveness of the Webtable-Datatable Conversion approach
Sebestyén, K., Csapó, G., & Csernoch, M. (2023) · Az Eszterházy Károly Tanárképző Főiskola tudományos közleményei. Tanulmányok a matematikai tudományok köréből/Az Eszterházy Károly Főiskola tudományos közleményei. Tanulmányok a matematikai tudományok köréből/Annales mathematicae et informaticae · doi:10.33039/ami.2022.12.010 · Cited by 9
“Considering theses bases, the teacher leads the conversation with coaching techniques [9, 17], where targeted questions are used to help students to set up the characteristics of the data, to understand the problem, and to find their own solutions.”
BackgroundAzimi, E., Jafari, L., & Mahdavinasab, Y. (2023) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-11632-9 · Cited by 7
“Since using cognitive tools solely fails to guarantee the learning achievement of the students, integrating well-designed instructional supports with these tools could lead to the desired results in the students’ learning (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundMethodChallenges and opportunities to build quantitative self-confidence in biologists
Cuddington, K. M., Abbott, K. C., Adler, F. R., Aydeniz, M., Dale, R., Gross, L. J., Hastings, A., Hobson, E. A., Karatayev, V. A., Killion, A. K., et al. (2023) · BioScience · doi:10.1093/biosci/biad015 · Cited by 7
Leyer, M., Yuan, B., Wang, M., Moormann, J., & |, |. (2023) · Knowledge Management & E-Learning An International Journal · doi:10.34105/j.kmel.2023.15.012 · Cited by 7
“…it is noted that experiential learning requires learners to work with multiple information in complex processes that may place high cognitive demand on learners; more attention should be given to guidance and feedback that facilitate the learning process (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
Learning Profile Mapping for Differentiated Instruction Implementation
Oloo, O. M., & Florence, A. M. (2023) · International Journal of Humanities Social Sciences and Education · doi:10.20431/2349-0381.1007006 · Cited by 7
“The findings regarding the difficulties experienced by teachers related to the learning process are also found in the work of Kirschner et al. (2006), that there are factors that result in low learning interest, low achievement, and high dropout rates that need to be a concern for teachers to carry…”
BackgroundDevelopment of PBL Modul-El to Improve Problem Solving Students of Physics Education Program
Saputri, R., Wilujeng, İ., Jumadi, J., et al. (2023) · Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan IPA · doi:10.29303/jppipa.v9i10.4092 · Cited by 7
“The PBL model el-module also provides facilities for students to explore solutions in solving problems effectively and efficiently (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundAlias, M., & Saleh, H. H. M. (2007) · Cited by 7
Calvani, A. (2014) · LEA - Lingue e Letterature d Oriente e d Occidente · doi:10.13128/lea-1824-484x-14592 · Cited by 7
“…come la riduzione della guida istruttiva, l’uso libero delle tecnologie e la navigazione sulla rete possano ingenerare in soggetti novizi sovraccarico e dispersione, riducendone gli apprendimenti (Mayer 2004; Brand-Gruwel et al., 2005; Chen et al., 2006; Clark et al., 2006; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundIntelligent Tutoring for Ill-Defined Domains in Military Simulation-Based Training
Bratt, E. O. (2009) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.3233/irg-2009-19(4)02 · Cited by 7
Guiding the practice of constructivist teaching
Taber, K. S. (2011) · Teacher Development · doi:10.1080/13664530.2011.555229 · Cited by 7
“Constructivist and related approaches have been said to have been shown to fail (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006), and there has been a wide debate on the issue, where scholars have taken very different views (Tobias & Duffy, 2009).”
BackgroundBerghmans, I., Dochy, F. J. R. C., Druine, N., & Struyven, K. (2012) · Perspectives on Medical Education · doi:10.1007/s40037-012-0018-z · Cited by 8
“In contrast, prior knowledge schemata of more knowledgeable students are stated to offer sufficient internal guidance [25], which might have minimized the added value of facilitative training for these students.”
BackgroundA Comparison of the Micro-Adaptive and Hybrid Approaches to Adaptive Training
Buskirk, W. L. V., Steinhauser, N. B., Mercado, A. D., Landsberg, C. R., & Astwood, R. S. (2014) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/1541931214581242 · Cited by 7
“Indeed, findings from CLT research suggest that the way feedback is designed can maximize efficiency of WM (Kalyuga, 2007; Kirscher, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
BackgroundStromquist, N. P. (2009) · Culture and Education · doi:10.1174/113564009788345862 · Cited by 7
Evaluation of the Centres of Excellence in Higher Education
Kettunen, J. (2011) · Tertiary Education and Management · doi:10.1080/13583883.2011.565790 · Cited by 7
“The novice learners need more guidance, but as they gain confidence and become competent, then they may learn through discovery (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006 ).”
BackgroundPerspectives on presentation and pedagogy in aid of bioinformatics education
Buttigieg, P. L. (2010) · Briefings in Bioinformatics · doi:10.1093/bib/bbq062 · Cited by 6
“’s [15] emphases on cognitive over behavioral student activity.”
BackgroundCrossman, J. (2010) · The International Journal of Management Education · doi:10.3794/ijme.91.306 · Cited by 7
WikiVet: building a community of practice to support a self-sustaining wiki for veterinary education
Brown, G., Quentin-Baxter, M., & Belshaw, Z. (2010) · International Journal of Web Based Communities · doi:10.1504/ijwbc.2010.032234 · Cited by 7
“They need educational content, found in repositories (such as Jorum and MyIntute) and elsewhere on the internet, to be signposted in the context of meeting their learning outcomes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundDeveloping Transferable Research Skills in First Year Agricultural Economics Students
Koppi, T., Nolan, E., & Field, D. J. (2010) · Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice · doi:10.53761/1.7.2.6 · Cited by 7
Making explicit some tensions in educational practice: science education in focus
Camillo, J., & de Mattos, C. R. (2014) · Cultural-Historical Psychology · Cited by 7
Scenario-Based Training: Director’s Cut
Peeters, M. M. M., den Bosch, K. V., Meyer, J. C., & Neerincx, M. A. (2011) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-21869-9_35 · Cited by 7
“Research has shown that trainees need a suitable amount of support during training tasks [5].”
BackgroundA Way to Implement the Neo-Vygotskian Theoretical Learning Approach in the Schools
Karpov, Y. V. (2013) · International Journal of Pedagogical Innovations · doi:10.12785/ijpi/010104 · Cited by 7
What Makes a Good Laboratory Learning Exercise? Student Feedback from the ACELL Project
George, A. V., Read, J. R., Barrie, S. C., Bucat, R. B., Buntine, M. A., Crisp, G. T., Jamie, I. M., & Kable, S. H. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9732-4_34 · Cited by 7
“Equally, pure discovery approaches can be ineffective ( Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Mayer, 2004), in part because they can lack sufficient structure necessary to support student autonomy (Skinner & Belmont, 1993), and in part because they can foster behavioural rather than cognitive engagement (Byers, 2002).”
BackgroundAn Interuniversitary Education Concept for Collaborative Product Development
Feldhusen, J., Brezing, A., Bungert, F., et al. (2008) · RWTH Publications (RWTH Aachen) · Cited by 7
Ozer, I. (2014) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network) · Cited by 6
The Effectiveness of Additional Class Contact Time on Student Performance in Statics
Burkhardt, J. (2013) · International Journal of Mechanical Engineering Education · doi:10.7227/ijmee.41.2.8 · Cited by 7
Online concept maps in medical education: Are we there yet?
Ho, V. W., & Velan, G. M. (2016) · Focus on Health Professional Education A Multi-Professional Journal · doi:10.11157/fohpe.v17i1.119 · Cited by 8
Mathematics engagement in an Australian lower secondary school
Norton, S. J. (2016) · Journal of Curriculum Studies · doi:10.1080/00220272.2016.1141995 · Cited by 7
Students\' Views on Laboratory Applications: Izmir Sample
Feyzioğlu, B., Ateş, B. D. A., Çobanoğlu, İ., et al. (2011) · İlköğretim Online (elektronik) · Cited by 7
He, K. (2013) · Journal of Educational Technology Development and Exchange · doi:10.18785/jetde.0602.01 · Cited by 7
“Guidance” and the Consensus Reached Kirschner et al. (2006) contend that our understanding of human cognitive structure is based on the information processing theory that postulates that human working memory is limited, and that “minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics…”
InfluentialLearners’ Cognitive Load When Using Educational Technology
Low, R., Jin, P., & Sweller, J. (2011) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-60960-195-9.ch708 · Cited by 7
Self-citationRobles, A., García, F. F., & Sonera, J. S. (2016) · Actualidades Investigativas en Educación · doi:10.15517/aie.v16i3.26063 · Cited by 7
Effects of economic classroom experiments on economic knowledge and reasoning in secondary education
Grol, R., Sent, E., & de Vries, B. (2016) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2016.09.010 · Cited by 9
Gomes, D. M., & McCauley, V. (2016) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2016.1234729 · Cited by 7
Jacobs, B., & Robin, B. (2016) · Animation · doi:10.1177/1746847716662554 · Cited by 8
Student Autonomy: Implications of Design-based Informal Learning Experiences in Engineering
Kusano, S., & Johri, A. (2020) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--23043 · Cited by 7
“in formal well-structured coursework, it is valuable and influential on students’ holistic educational experience.(29,30) More importantly, a key outcome desired of and by students is to be independent, confident, and critical thinkers, which we have shown can be attained via these non-traditional learning sites.”
BackgroundNakai, T., Nakatani, H., Hosoda, C., Nonaka, Y., & Okanoya, K. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0168661 · Cited by 7
Menninga, A., van Dijk, M., Wetzels, A., Steenbeek, H., & van Geert, P. L. C. (2017) · Educational Research and Evaluation · doi:10.1080/13803611.2017.1292920 · Cited by 7
Threshold Concepts for Anesthesiologists
Barry, D. S., & Littlewood, K. E. (2017) · Anesthesia & Analgesia · doi:10.1213/ane.0000000000002130 · Cited by 7
Analysis of Students' Process Skills and Chemistry Learning Outcomes
Sholahuddın, A., & Shadriyah, Y. (2017) · doi:10.2991/seadric-17.2017.79 · Cited by 7
Riddell, J. (2017) · Arts and Humanities in Higher Education · doi:10.1177/1474022217722510 · Cited by 7
“One of the deterrents to innovative teaching is the amount of time and effort required to design and then deploy innovative pedagogies in the classroom (Herrington and Herrington, 2006; Kirschner et al., 2006; Renzulli et al., 2004).”
BackgroundPedagogy and Technology-Enhanced Learning
(2017) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-78714-182-720171005 · Cited by 7
Apprentissages scolaires et non scolaires avec le numérique
Tricot, A. (2016) · Administration & Éducation · doi:10.3917/admed.152.0033 · Cited by 8
Structuring Structural Awareness: A Commentary on Chapter 13
Mason, J. (2018) · New ICMI studies series · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-63555-2_14 · Cited by 8
Teaching Global Software Engineering
Fu, Y., Reina, L. P., & Brockmann, P. (2018) · doi:10.1145/3209087.3209102 · Cited by 7
“[15]warnedthatdiscovery-based teaching methods can lead to cognitive overload with less experienced students.”
BackgroundFlexible low-cost activities to develop novice code comprehension skills in schools
Donaldson, P., & Cutts, Q. I. (2018) · Workshop in Primary and Secondary Computing Education · doi:10.1145/3265757.3265776 · Cited by 8
“Reducing the high-level of cognitive load of code comprehension faced by novices [15, 19] by distributing cognition between the mind of the novice and the code as it is annotated [4] and reducing the number of details that need to be maintained in working memory [9].”
BackgroundThe Responses of One School to the 2008 Year 9 NAPLAN Numeracy Test
Norton, S. J. (2009) · Griffith Research Online · Cited by 7
Fiedler, D., Tröbst, S., Großschedl, J., & Harms, U. (2018) · Evolution Education and Outreach · doi:10.1186/s12052-018-0089-3 · Cited by 7
Schneider, B., & Blikstein, P. (2015) · Computer Supported Collaborative Learning · Cited by 7
Lee, S. S., Hooi, S. C., Pan, T. L. T., et al. (2018) · Korean journal of medical education · doi:10.3946/kjme.2018.104 · Cited by 7
“[7], the school found that the pedagogical approach overwhelmed the novice learners who lack of proper schema to work with under minimal guidance and ‘summary’ sessions, which were mainly didactic, were needed to fill in the gaps.”
BackgroundForrest, S. (2018) · Journal of Research in International Education · doi:10.1177/1475240918816401 · Cited by 7
“As before, teachers explored, discussed and debated research findings (e.g. Aulls et al, 2015; Levy and Petrulis, 2012; Hmelo-Silver et al, 2007; Kirschner et al, 2006; Lazonder and Harmsen, 2016; Boyer, 1998) and collaboratively examined samples of student work and an example Atlas curriculum map…”
BackgroundStudent's activity and development: Disentangling secondary issues from the heart of the matter
Bulle, N. (2018) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2018.12.004 · Cited by 7
“…our knowledge of human cognitive architecture relies on the observation that various forms of discovery learning approaches inefficiently resort to problem solving when learners have not sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide “internal” guidance (Kirschner et al., 2006, p. 79; Karpov, 2003).”
BackgroundShephard, K. L. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.011 · Cited by 8
Lancaster, T., Robins, A. V., & Fincher, S. A. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.015 · Cited by 11
3D-Printable Model of a Particle Trap: Development and Use in the Physics Classroom
McGinness, L. P., Dührkoop, S., Jansky, A., Keller, O., Lorenz, A., Schmeling, S., Wendt, K., & Woithe, J. (2019) · Journal of Open Hardware · doi:10.5334/joh.12 · Cited by 7
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
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