The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
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- Trafton, J. G. & Reiser, R. J. (1993). The contribution of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition. In M. Polson (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1017-1022). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 2,501–2,600 of 6,869
Lenzer, S., Smarsly, B. M., & Graulich, N. (2020) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2020.1810355 · Cited by 11
Digital technologies and equity: gender, digital divide and rurality
Anderson, N. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781316091968.007 · Cited by 12
Zwart, D. P., Goei, S. L., Noroozi, O., & Luit, J. E. H. V. (2021) · Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning · doi:10.1186/s41039-021-00147-x · Cited by 14
Not a Magic Bullet: The Effect of Scaffolding on Knowledge and Attitudes in Online Simulations
Roll, I., Briseño‐Garzón, A., Yee, N., & Welsh, A. (2014) · Boulder, CO: International Society of the Learning Sciences eBooks · doi:10.22318/icls2014.879 · Cited by 12
“In general terms, proponents of high level of guidance suggest that novice learners learn better in situations where direct and comprehensive instructional guidance is provided (e.g., Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
BackgroundMutseekwa, C. (2021) · Journal of Research in Science Mathematics and Technology Education · doi:10.31756/jrsmte.422 · Cited by 15
Wong, L. P. W., Yuen, M., & Chen, G. (2022) · British Journal of Guidance and Counselling · doi:10.1080/03069885.2022.2040005 · Cited by 12
“In short, students should never be left alone to self-discover their career paths by trial and error (Education Bureau, 2014; Kirschner et al., 2006; OECD, 2004).”
BackgroundThe CHEM Jam - how to integrate a game creation event in curriculum-based engineering education
Fornós, S., Udeozor, C., Glassey, J., & Cermak-Sassenrath, D. (2022) · Education for Chemical Engineers · doi:10.1016/j.ece.2022.04.001 · Cited by 12
Learning in An Uncertain World: Transforming Higher Education for the Anthropocene
Barr, N., Hartley, K. A., Lopata, J. A., McFarlane, B., & Mcnamara, M. J. (2022) · Creativity theory and action in education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-98729-9_18 · Cited by 13
Theory on Teaching Effectiveness at Meta, General and Partial Level
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Malik, T. H., Sun, C., & Zhang, G. (2023) · Digital Economy and Sustainable Development · doi:10.1007/s44265-023-00022-1 · Cited by 12
“…from another perspective, as it could boost students’ cognitive abstraction abilities, broaden perspectives, and increase knowledge accumulation, potentially leading to higher academic achievements and life pursuits (Chinedu, Olabiyi, and Kamin 2015; Eddy et al. 2021; Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundThe Effect of Prior Conceptual Knowledge on Procedural Performance and Learning in Algebra
Booth, J. L., Koedinger, K. R., & Siegler, R. S. (2007) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 12
Engaging and informing students through group work
Williams, S. (2011) · Psychology Teaching Review · doi:10.53841/bpsptr.2011.17.1.24 · Cited by 12
Promoting Metacognition in Immersive Cultural Learning Environments
Lane, H. C. (2009) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-02583-9_15 · Cited by 12
“Inherent risks exist in unguided environments, such as inefficient learning, the formation of misconceptions, and development of incomplete or fragmented knowledge [12].”
BackgroundAgents for Games and Simulations : Trends in Techniques, Concepts and Design
Dignum, F. P. M., Doesburg, W., Silverman, B. G., & Bradshaw, J. (2009) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-11198-3 · Cited by 12
Remembering rhetoric: Recalling a tradition of explicit instruction in writing
Moon, B. (2012) · Australasian Journal of Paramedicine · Cited by 12
Tullis, J. G., Goldstone, R. L., & Hanson, A. J. (2015) · Journal of Motor Behavior · doi:10.1080/00222895.2015.1008686 · Cited by 12
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“However, “students’ own responsibility” was not found to mean that inquiry learning is one form of “minimally guided instruction”− as Kirschner et al. (2006) claim.”
BackgroundWatermeyer, R. (2015) · British Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1002/berj.3173 · Cited by 12
Gálvez, I. E., Redruello, R. E. A., Martín, R. C., et al. (2007) · Educación y futuro: revista de investigación aplicada y experiencias educativas · Cited by 12
Twitter tales: Facilitating international collaboration with mobile web 2.0
Cochrane, T. (2010) · ASCILITE - Australian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education Annual Conference · Cited by 12
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Tseng, K., Chang, C., & Lou, S. (2011) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2010.542756 · Cited by 12
“In addition, during the early stages of learning, novice learners may find it difficult to process large amounts of information in a short amount of time (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
BackgroundGibbings, P. D., Lidstone, J., & Bruce, C. D. (2010) · Australasian journal of engineering education · doi:10.1080/22054952.2010.11464036 · Cited by 12
“Although PBL has some critics (for example, Kirschner et al, 2006; Mayer, 2004), its merits are well documented in the literature.”
BackgroundLes enseignants en formation face aux approches pédagogiques : une analyse en classes latentes
Wanlin, P., & Crahay, M. (2015) · Revue des sciences de l éducation · doi:10.7202/1034035ar · Cited by 12
“Problem-based learning is compatible with human cognitive architecture : commentary on Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialParticipate or observe? Effects of economic classroom experiments on students’ economic literacy
Grol, R., Sent, E., & de Vries, B. (2016) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-016-0287-8 · Cited by 13
Instructor versus Peer Attention Guidance in Online Learning Conversations
Eryilmaz, E., Thoms, B., Mary, J., Kim, R., Marymount, L., & van der Pol, J. (2015) · AIS Transactions on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.17705/1thci.00074 · Cited by 12
The Effects of Presentation Formats on Understanding Financial Accounting: an Experimental Study
Sithole, S. T. M. (2016) · Australasian Accounting Business and Finance Journal · doi:10.14453/aabfj.v10i2.5 · Cited by 12
Taplin, R., Kerr, R., & Brown, A. M. (2017) · Accounting Education · doi:10.1080/09639284.2016.1274913 · Cited by 13
“may have with both students’ and teachers’ beliefs about knowledge and learning (Kember, 2001; Kirschner et al., 2006; O’Neill & McMahon, 2005).”
BackgroundHuman resource education in the Middle East region
Dirani, K. M., & Hamie, C. S. (2017) · European journal of training and development · doi:10.1108/ejtd-06-2015-0040 · Cited by 12
Entdeckendes Lernen: Eine Problematisierung.
Kollosche, D. (2017) · Journal für Mathematik-Didaktik · doi:10.1007/s13138-017-0116-x · Cited by 12
“Demnach erfordere Entdeckendes Lernen vom Lernenden, seine Aktivitäten in der Entdeckungssituation fortwährend zu überwachen und zu bewerten, was zu einem cognitive load führe, der die Kapazität zum Erlernen curricularer Inhalte einschränke (Sweller 1988; Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundUsing artwork as problem context in generic critical thinking instruction: A strategy for thoughts
Ku, K. Y. L., Lee, V. S. L., & Ellis, J. W. (2017) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2017.07.001 · Cited by 12
Adaptation of Know, Want to Know, and Learned Chart for Problem-Based Learning
Bailey, L. A. (2017) · Journal of Nursing Education · doi:10.3928/01484834-20170712-11 · Cited by 12
Teacher collaboration’s influence on inquiry-based science teaching methods
Lepareur, C., & Grangeat, M. (2018) · Education Inquiry · doi:10.1080/20004508.2018.1428037 · Cited by 17
Beccaria, L., Kek, M. Y. C. A., & Huijser, H. (2018) · Nurse Education Today · doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2018.02.032 · Cited by 12
Goemaere, S., Beyers, W., Muynck, G. D., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2018) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2018.03.047 · Cited by 14
The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of the Psychology of Training, Development, and Performance Improvement
Passmore, J., Kraiger, K., dos Santos, N. R., & Malvezzi, S. (2014) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 12
Die Entwicklung der Professionellen Unterrichtswahrnehmung im Lehr-Lern-Labor Seminar
Treisch, F. (2018) · Logos Verlag Berlin eBooks · doi:10.30819/4741 · Cited by 15
Wang, J., Tsiligiris, V., & Hartley, R. (2018) · Accounting Education · doi:10.1080/09639284.2018.1516151 · Cited by 12
Patching a leak in an R1 university gateway STEM course
Lee, S., Crane, B. R., Ruttledge, T. R., Guelce, D., Yee, E. F., Lenetsky, M., Caffrey, M., Johnsen, W. D. A., Lin, A., Lu, S., et al. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0202041 · Cited by 16
Applying Innovations in Teaching to General Chemistry
Hollinsed, W. C. (2018) · ACS symposium series · doi:10.1021/bk-2018-1301.ch009 · Cited by 13
Leveraging the Integrated Development Environment for Learning Analytics
Carter, A., Hundhausen, C. D., & Olivares, D. M. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.024 · Cited by 13
Civil Engineering 4 Real (CE4R): co-curricular learning for undergraduates
Murray, M., Hendry, G., & McQuade, R. (2019) · European Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1080/03043797.2019.1585762 · Cited by 12
Martin, A. J., Malmberg, L., Kennett, R., Mansour, M., Papworth, B., & Pearson, J. (2019) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2019.05.005 · Cited by 13
Using eye-tracking to for analyzing case study materials
Berger, T. B. (2019) · The International Journal of Management Education · doi:10.1016/j.ijme.2019.05.002 · Cited by 12
Spiro, R. J., Feltovich, P. J., Gaunt, A., et al. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198795872.013.41 · Cited by 12
Integrated Model for Teaching Language Skills
Yassin, A. A., Razak, N. A., & Maasum, T. N. R. T. M. (2019) · International Journal of English Linguistics · doi:10.5539/ijel.v9n5p89 · Cited by 12
Mixed Reality Games in Engineering Education
Richert, A., Mai, V., Mengen, H., et al. (2019) · Experiment@International Conference · doi:10.1109/expat.2019.8876572 · Cited by 12
“Only when students are experienced enough to provide themselves internal guidance, feedback from a teacher is less needed [21].”
BackgroundZvoch, K., Holveck, S., & Porter, L. (2019) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-019-09907-8 · Cited by 20
Literasi Statistika Mahasiswa Adminitrasi Publik
Jatisunda, M. G., Nahdi, D. S., & Suciawati, V. (2020) · SJME (Supremum Journal of Mathematics Education) · doi:10.35706/sjme.v4i2.3488 · Cited by 12
Maloshonok, N. G., & Shcheglova, I. A. (2020) · University Management Practice and Analysis · doi:10.15826/umpa.2020.02.017 · Cited by 12
“Как отмечают исследователи [34, 35], такая модель может принести отстающим студентам скорее вред, чем пользу, поскольку она ориентирована в первую очередь на студентов из благополучных семей с высокими академическими достижениями, у которых уже сформированы метакогнитивные навыки и навыки саморегулирования образовател…”
John Dewey and Science Education
Johnston, J. S. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7654-8_75 · Cited by 16
Smart Sensors for Augmented Electrical Experiments
Kapp, S., Lauer, F., Beil, F., Rheinländer, C. C., Wehn, N., & Kühn, J. (2021) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s22010256 · Cited by 12
“Otherwise, situations of cognitive overload due to the complexity of the processes can be experienced by learners, hindering their learning (e.g., [11]).”
BackgroundRetrieval Practices Enhance Computational and Scientific Thinking Skills
Yaşar, O., Maliekal, J. A., Veronesi, P. D., Little, L., Meise, M., & Yeter, I. H. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.892276 · Cited by 14
“…experts’ habits of practice to novices is inherently problematic because of prerequisite content knowledge and practice skills needed to engage in the same thinking processes (Kirschner et al., 2006), not to mention the cost of providing them a similar environment to conduct inquiry and design.”
BackgroundRoboviz: A Game-Centered Project for Information Visualization Education
Adar, E., & Lee-Robbins, E. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2022.3209402 · Cited by 11
“However, we note that a key limitation of many of these pedagogical approaches is that when taken to the extreme they embrace a kind of ‘minimally guided instruction’ [32].”
BackgroundManaging Errors During Training
Keith, N. (2012) · Professional and practice-based learning · doi:10.1007/978-90-481-3941-5_11 · Cited by 12
Review: Rethinking Popular Culture and Media (2011)
Moore, D. (2012) · Journal of Media Literacy Education · doi:10.23860/jmle-4-2-9 · Cited by 12
Le TIC nella scuola: dieci raccomandazioni per i policy maker
Calvani, A. (2013) · Form re - Open Journal per la formazione in rete · doi:10.13128/formare-14227 · Cited by 12
“…solving teaching 0.6 dispersione, riducendone di fatto gli apprendimenti: l’idea che la multimedialità di per sé faccia apprendere meglio appartiene ad una ingenua mitologia tecnologica (BrandGruwel et al., 2005; Chen et al., 2006; Clark et al., 2006; Kirschner et al., 2006; Mayer, 2004).”
InfluentialIn search of a method to assess dispositional behaviours: The case of Otago Virtual Hospital
Loke, S., Blyth, P., & Swan, J. A. (2012) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.844 · Cited by 12
“Drawing on Kolb's (1984) model of experiential learning, we believe that students' repeated participation and reflection (via post-scenario questionnaire and debrief) have the potential to enculturate them into the values and dispositions of medical practice.”
MethodCraft, C. M., Feldon, D. F., & Brown, E. A. (2013) · The American Journal of Surgery · doi:10.1016/j.amjsurg.2013.06.003 · Cited by 12
The Use of Alternative Algorithms in Whole Number Computation.
Norton, S. J. (2012) · Griffith Research Online · Cited by 12
First Aid Knowledge Retention in School Children: A Review of the Literature
Lenson, S., & Mills, J. (2016) · Australasian Journal of Paramedicine · doi:10.33151/ajp.13.1.233 · Cited by 12
“Kirschner PA, Sweller J, Clark RE.”
BackgroundInfluentialAn inductive approach to grammar teaching in Grade 5 & 6 Irish immersion classes
Duibhir, P. Ó., Dhiorbháin, A. N., & Cosgrove, J. (2016) · Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education · doi:10.1075/jicb.4.1.02dui · Cited by 18
Supporting Discovery-Based Learning within Simulations
Rieber, L. (2009) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-158-2.ch012 · Cited by 19
Students embracing change towards more powerful learning environments in vocational education
Placklé, I., Könings, K. D., Jacquet, W., Libotton, A., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Engels, N. (2017) · Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/03055698.2017.1331840 · Cited by 12
“…learning and teaching support is that teachers provide coaching that offers appropriate structure and trust, and that stimulates students to self-regulate their learning (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006; Jang, Reeve, and Deci 2010; Vansteenkiste et al. 2012; Van Merriënboer and Kirschner 2013).”
BackgroundTeacher Knowledge for Inclusive Computing Learning
Goode, J., & Ryoo, J. J. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.025 · Cited by 12
Evolutionary Biology and Educational Psychology
Sweller, J. (2007) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-60752-588-220251009 · Cited by 12
Self-citationA Blended Approach to Learning in an Obstetrics and Gynecology Residency Program: Proof of Concept
Taylor, F., Nelson, E., Delfino, K. R., et al. (2015) · Journal of Medical Education and Curricular Development · doi:10.4137/jmecd.s32063 · Cited by 12
Changing pedagogy: A comparative analysis of reform efforts in Uganda and Turkey
Altinyelken, H. K. (2010) · Cited by 12
Constructivist Frameworks in Chemistry Education and the Problem of the “Thumb in the Eye”
Wink, D. J. (2014) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/ed400739b · Cited by 12
Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning
Longe, O. B. (2016) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781483318332.n81 · Cited by 12
Melanou, C., & Beege, M. (2026) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci16040651 · Cited by 12
Collaborative Online Learning in the Cultural Context of South East Asia: A Systematic Review
GROTHAUS, C., & ZAWACKI RICHTER, O. (2020) · Hacettepe University Journal of Education · doi:10.16986/huje.2020062020 · Cited by 11
“Other scholars question e-ISSN: 2536-4758 http://www.efdergi.hacettepe.edu.tr/ constructivism pointing out that there is little evidence that unstructured, unguided learning leads to bester student outcomes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Yang, S., Choi, J. S., Lee, J. W., & Kim, E.-M. (2024) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105136 · Cited by 16
Lean digital education to resolve the paradox of the illusion of digital prosperity
Csernoch, M. (2025) · Journal of Innovation & Knowledge · doi:10.1016/j.jik.2025.100676 · Cited by 16
“…base that can stimulate fast thinking based on schemata while also providing room for deliberate, slow thinking when schemata are not accessible (Kahneman, 2011; Kirschner et al., 2006; Rother, 2010; Sweller et al., 2007, 2011), along with solutions which support error-detection and elimination.”
InfluentialAsher, M. W., Hartman, J. D., Blaser, M., Eichler, J. F., & Carvalho, P. F. (2025) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105387 · Cited by 16
Gouda, A. D. K., Sorour, M. S., Ayoub, A. S., Aboushady, R. M. N., Awad, M., swerky, F. M. E., Ayed, M. M. A., Elrefay, B. W., Elshnawie, H. A. E., & Elsayed, H. T. M. (2026) · BMC Nursing · doi:10.1186/s12912-025-04238-8 · Cited by 12
Dickerson, C., Jarvis, J., Levy, R. P., & Thomas, K. (2016) · Teachers and Teaching · doi:10.1080/13540602.2016.1211101 · Cited by 11
The Entropy of Digital Texts—The Mathematical Background of Correctness
Csernoch, M., Nagy, K., & Nagy, T. (2023) · Entropy · doi:10.3390/e25020302 · Cited by 16
“The content is indifferent to modification (qualitative requirements, and errors detailed in Section 1.1.2)—the document is editable, but applied changes must be limited to the correct form of those actions that the user originally intended.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAlipour, M., Aminifar, E., Geary, D. C., & Ebrahimpour, R. (2023) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2023.101894 · Cited by 14
Conversational Agents to Support Remote Personalized Instruction for Diverse Learners
Carter, R. A., Zhang, L., Hunt, T., Emerling, C. R., Yang, S., & Rujimora, J. (2023) · TechTrends · doi:10.1007/s11528-023-00877-3 · Cited by 11
“The educational decisions that teachers make are then delivered by a structure for providing direct, explicit, and systematic guidance which is critical for empowering learners to succeed in varying contexts, especially in online learning environments (Alfieri et al., 2011; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundVerstege, S., Zhang, Y., Wierenga, P. A., Paquette, L., & Diederen, J. (2023) · Technology Knowledge and Learning · doi:10.1007/s10758-023-09677-3 · Cited by 12
“This is in line with the positive effects of worked examples discussed by Kirschner et al. (2006).”
Kulo, V. A., & Cestone, C. M. (2023) · Medical Science Educator · doi:10.1007/s40670-023-01893-x · Cited by 16
“[7, 9], commentary ( n = 3, 3”
Cognitive Load Theory: What We Learn and How We Learn
Sweller, J. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-17461-7_50 · Cited by 15
Self-citationOlop, J., Granström, M., & Kikas, E. (2024) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2024.1307485 · Cited by 22
Jung, J., Shin, Y., Chung, H., & Fanguy, M. (2025) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-024-09407-3 · Cited by 11
“Worked-out example (WOE) is a type of instructional strategy that in which the learner is guided through a stepwise demonstration of how to solve a problem or complete at task (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Can AI-Based Scaffolding Promote Students’ Robust Learning of Authentic Science Practices?
Gobert, J. D., Li, H., Dickler, R., & Lott, C. (2024) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198882077.003.0012 · Cited by 12
Pitfalls of Social Interaction in Online Group Learning
Kreijns, K., Weidlich, J., & Kirschner, P. A. (2023) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781107165250.025 · Cited by 13
Self-citationLi, Y., Hu, W., & Li, Y. (2025) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-025-10448-3 · Cited by 13
“Some argue for highly structured scripts throughout the entire process of learning complex skills (Kirschner et al., 2006), while others advocate for minimal structure (Duffys & Jonassen, 2013).”
InfluentialKaya, D., & Yavuz, S. (2025) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence13040043 · Cited by 23
“Personalized AI-driven tutoring models allow students to interact with complex problems at an appropriate difficulty level, promoting conceptual understanding and adaptive learning (Chen et al. 2020; Daher et al. 2023; Kirschner et al. 2006; Ogunleye et al. 2024).”
Georgiou, D., Gallagher, S. E., & Chmielewska, K. A. (2025) · Active Learning in Higher Education · doi:10.1177/14697874251326099 · Cited by 13
“Cognitive-orientated scholars (Kirschner et al., 2006) suggest that approaches such as CBL could be less effective or efficient than approaches that have more formalized and structured guidance.”
KOÇOĞLU, A., & Kanadlı, S. (2025) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2025.100690 · Cited by 11
Perspectives of Knowledge Creation and Implications for Education
Tan, S. C., & Tan, Y. H. (2014) · Education innovation series · doi:10.1007/978-981-287-047-6_2 · Cited by 11
“Kirschner et al. (2006) stress differences between how experts create knowledge and how learners acquire knowledge.”
BackgroundDevelopment of professional engineers' authentic contexts in blended learning environments
Park, K., & Park, S. (2011) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2011.01244.x · Cited by 11
Lupton, M. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-100673-3.00002-2 · Cited by 11
Twelve tips for using clinical cases to teach medical ethics
Dong, H., Sherer, R. D., Lio, J., Jiang, I., & Cooper, B. K. (2017) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.1080/0142159x.2017.1390218 · Cited by 11
“There is evidence that the “hands-off” approach adopted by some teachers is inappropriate and may be less productive than approaches that place an emphasis on guidance of the student learning process (Miflin et al. 2000; Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundDuffin, L. C., Keith, H. B., Rudloff, M. I., & Cribbs, J. (2019) · International Journal of Research in Undergraduate Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s40753-019-00101-9 · Cited by 11
Teaching International Relations through the Format of a Massive Open Online Course (MOOC)
Kaempf, S., & Finn, C. (2019) · International Studies Perspectives · doi:10.1093/isp/ekz025 · Cited by 11
Hällström, J., & Klasander, C. (2020) · Contemporary issues in technology education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-41548-8_4 · Cited by 11
Arifin, S., Wahyudin, W., & Herman, T. (2020) · Jurnal Prima Edukasia · doi:10.21831/jpe.v8i2.33059 · Cited by 11
“Kirschner et al. (2006) proved that minimal guidance instruction was less effective than a learning approach that emphasizes on guidance for students during instruction.”
BackgroundResultInfluential., F., Raja, P., & Mahpul, M. (2020) · International Journal of Education and Practice · doi:10.18488/journal.61.2020.84.733.745 · Cited by 11
“The corrective feedback was done in this study in order to avoid inaccuracy suggested by Kirschner et al. (2006) or misconception (Hai-Jew, 2008).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
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