The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
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Sorted by citations
Items 2,801–2,900 of 6,869
CHADWICK, R. F., McLoughlin, E., & Finlayson, O. E. (2021) · Irish Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/03323315.2021.1964565 · Cited by 9
Solity, J. E. (2022) · Review of Education · doi:10.1002/rev3.3349 · Cited by 9
Implementation and Evaluation of Mock Trial Within Undergraduate Sport Law Curriculum
Lynch, M. R., Lower‐Hoppe, L. M., Brgoch, S. M., Evans, J. O., Bailey, R. L., Beattie, M. A., Samad, M., & Ryder, A. (2022) · Sport Management Education Journal · doi:10.1123/smej.2021-0008 · Cited by 9
Johnson‐Glenberg, M. C. (2022) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/13593.003.0023 · Cited by 9
Rosenberg‐Kima, R. B., Merrill, M., Baylor, A. L., & Johnson, T. E. (2022) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-022-10143-7 · Cited by 12
“On the other hand, when element interactivity was high, starting with explicit instruction before problem-solving was found to be superior (e.g., Ashman et al., 2019; Chen & Kalyuga, 2020; Jong, 2019; Kirschner et al., 2006; Sweller et al., 2007).”
Background(2022) · The Journal of Educators Online · doi:10.9743/jeo.2022.19.3.5 · Cited by 10
On the proposed role of metacognition in environment learning: recommendations for research
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Newer Theories for Digital Learning Spaces
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How do medical students learn in an online community diagnostics program?
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“However, some have argued that it places unnecessary stress on trainees due to the risk of inaccurate content and the cognitive load of struggling [35, 36].”
BackgroundWalsh, M. E., Witherspoon, E. B., Schunn, C. D., & Matsumura, L. C. (2023) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-023-00401-2 · Cited by 12
Thurm, D., Ebers, P., & Barzel, B. (2022) · Mathematics education in the digital era · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-05254-5_1 · Cited by 9
Calleja, J., Foster, C. F., & Hodgen, J. (2023) · Research in Mathematics Education · doi:10.1080/14794802.2023.2176915 · Cited by 9
“Proponents of “ teach-fi rst ” approaches to teaching (see Kirschner et al., 2006) argue that this lesson structure is more guided.”
Doğan, Ö. K., Han-Tosunoğlu, Ç., Arslan, N., Çakır, M., & İrez, S. (2023) · International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s10763-023-10365-y · Cited by 11
“But there is no consensus among researchers about the effectiveness of inquiry-based teaching in science learning (e.g., Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Lin, X., Wong, S. Y., Zhou, W., Shen, W., Li, W., & Tsai, C. (2023) · International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s10763-023-10376-9 · Cited by 23
“Extraneous cognitive load is caused by the poor design of instructional materials, which requires extra cognitive handling (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Scaling-up Higher Order Thinking
Zohar, A. E. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-15967-1 · Cited by 20
Research on Collaborative Problem Solving Teaching in a Secondary School Mathematics Classroom
Cao, Y. (2024) · Perspectives on rethinking and reforming education · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-7386-6_1 · Cited by 12
Ventistas, G., Ventista, O. M., & Tsani, P. (2024) · Research in Mathematics Education · doi:10.1080/14794802.2024.2306633 · Cited by 20
“Po ́ lya’s approach of problem solving has been criticised as generic, and it has been argued that there is no sufficient evidence to support its effectiveness on students’ learning (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Poon, C. L., Tan, S., Cheah, H. M., Lim, P. Y., & Ng, H. L. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9395-7_9 · Cited by 10
Scaffolding in Early Reading Activities for Down Syndrome
Yussof, R. L., & Zaman, H. B. (2011) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-25200-6_18 · Cited by 9
Gesellschaftliche Herausforderungen für Bildungsforschung und -praxis
Spinath, B., Hasselhorn, M., Artelt, C., Köller, O., Møller, J., & Brünken, R. (2012) · Psychologische Rundschau · doi:10.1026/0033-3042/a000118 · Cited by 11
Le modèle « investigation-structuration » et l’actualité des tensions autour des constructivismes
Calmettes, B., & Boilevin, J.-M. (2014) · RDST · doi:10.4000/rdst.856 · Cited by 9
Curiosity based learning: Impact study in 1st year electronics undergraduates
Jackson, N. R., & Ward, A. (2012) · International Conference on Information Technology Based Higher Education and Training (ITHET) · doi:10.1109/ithet.2012.6246005 · Cited by 9
“…it can be argued that the CBL method spans the epistemological continuum if it is assumed that the ends of such a continuum are objectivism (knowledge exists that reflects the real world – the desire to learn) and subjectivism (knowledge is based on previous experiences – the outcomes of a…”
BackgroundLibrary use by medical students: A comparison of two curricula
Chen, K., Lin, P.-C., Chang, S., et al. (2011) · Journal of Librarianship and Information Science · doi:10.1177/0961000611410928 · Cited by 9
“The more time, budget and human power put into the curriculum, the more opportunities the students can benefit from it (Garrison and Vaughan, 2007; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundFactors influencing student learning in portfolio assessed introductory programming
Cain, A. (2014) · IEEE International Conference on Teaching, Assessment, and Learning for Engineering · doi:10.1109/tale.2014.7062585 · Cited by 9
Inquiry Learning: Instructor Perspectives
Vajoczki, S., Watt, S., & Vine, M. M. (2011) · The Canadian Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning · doi:10.5206/cjsotl-rcacea.2011.2.3 · Cited by 9
“Justice, Rice, Warry, and Laurie (2007) identified several positive learning outcomes related to inquiry utilizing an earlier framework by Pettigrew (1985) on contextualist research that links theory and practice.”
BackgroundRoth, W. (2012) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-012-9324-z · Cited by 9
“Others outright reject inquiry—at least the forms in which there is little guidance (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundPorcaro, D. S., Incorporated, S., & Minneapolis (2011) · The International Journal of Education and Development using Information and Communication Technology (The University of the West Indies) · Cited by 9
Pieter, A., Fröhlich, M., Emrich, E., & Stark, R. (2010) · Journal of Primary Care & Community Health · doi:10.1177/2150131910365161 · Cited by 9
“In the context of this model, for instance, it was shown that purely explorative learning is less effective and that the learning process should be expanded to include phases of direct instruction by the instructor.(31) However, it should be noted that these results were found in the context of individual learning env…”
ResultGarden Learning: A Study on European Botanic Gardens Collaborative Learning Processes
Kapelari, S. (2015) · Ubiquity Press eBooks · doi:10.5334/bas · Cited by 9
“(Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Wichmann & Leutner, 2009; Kirschner et al., 2006; Mayr, 2004) The term ‘scaffolding’ is used to define a particular way of providing help to the learner.”
BackgroundAn Adaptive Coach for Invention Activities
Aleven, V. A. W. M. M., Connolly, H., Popescu, O., Marks, J., Lamnina, M., & Chase, C. C. (2017) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-61425-0_1 · Cited by 8
Grabaciones de situaciones de aula para la formación del profesorado
Quílez, M. J. G., Peña, M. B. M., & Cordero, S. (2017) · Ápice Revista de Educación Científica · doi:10.17979/arec.2017.1.1.2005 · Cited by 9
Critical service learning across two required marketing classes
Crutchfield, T. N. (2017) · Journal of Education for Business · doi:10.1080/08832323.2017.1396957 · Cited by 10
A method to reveal fine-grained and diverse conceptual progressions during learning
Lombard, F., Merminod, M., Widmer, V., et al. (2018) · Journal of Biological Education · doi:10.1080/00219266.2017.1405534 · Cited by 9
“However, there is consensus across the pro-/anti-constructivist divide that strong instructional guidance is more likely to result in effective learning than minimal guidance (Hattie 2008; Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
BackgroundElections as an Opportunity of learning Civic Education and Political Participation for teenagers
Zvulun, J. Y., & Harel, Y. (2018) · Citizenship Social and Economics Education · doi:10.1177/2047173418768548 · Cited by 10
“This article suggests to integrate constructive aspects in the teaching – learning process (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundLektorstudenter i praksis: mestringsforventninger og vurderinger av veiledning
Lejonberg, E. (2018) · Uniped · doi:10.18261/issn.1893-8981-2018-03-10 · Cited by 7
Vahrenhold, J., Cutts, Q. I., & Falkner, K. E. K. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.019 · Cited by 11
Chen, X., Mitrović, A., & Mathews, M. (2019) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-019-00179-x · Cited by 9
Salameh, L. A. M., Salameh, Z. A., & Al-Emami, A. H. (2019) · International Journal of English Linguistics · doi:10.5539/ijel.v9n5p12 · Cited by 9
Hsu, L., Ueng, R., & Hsieh, S. (2019) · Contemporary Nurse · doi:10.1080/10376178.2019.1682463 · Cited by 11
Designing Learning Activities for Experiential Learning in a Design Thinking Course
Gan, B. K. S., & Ouh, E. L. (2019) · doi:10.1109/tale48000.2019.9225989 · Cited by 9
“Kirschner, Sweller and Clark [13] further argue that so far the evidence from controlled studies, it almost uniformly supports direct, strong instructional guidance rather than constructivistbased minimal guidance during the instruction of novice to intermediate learners.”
BackgroundThe Value of Direct Instruction for At-Risk Students
Butler, K. (2020) · Journal of Education and Development · doi:10.20849/jed.v4i2.741 · Cited by 9
“Clark, Kirschner, and Sweller (2006) note that once a person has a significant quantity of background knowledge in a subject, minimally-guided instruction may be useful as a way for the person to apply his knowledge; for example, if students have been taught in detail the steps for writing a good…”
BackgroundTeaching science to students with developmental disabilities using the Early Science curriculum
Apanasionok, M. M., Neil, J., Watkins, R. C., et al. (2020) · Support for Learning · doi:10.1111/1467-9604.12329 · Cited by 9
“However, despite its widespread acceptance, there is no convincing research evidence to support the superiority of inquiry-based teaching strategies compared to more direct (systematic) instructional approaches (Novak, 1988; Mayer, 2004; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundEspacios artísticos para vivir las ciencias en Educación Infantil
González, E. M., Sánchez, S. C., Bueno, L. M. F., et al. (2020) · Enseñanza de las Ciencias Revista de investigación y experiencias didácticas · doi:10.5565/rev/ensciencias.2830 · Cited by 9
Dangprasert, S. (2021) · TEM Journal · doi:10.18421/tem101-08 · Cited by 9
“[2] Another learning management process that can encourage learners to develop various skills is selfdirected learning because the main aim of this learning were to practice learners’ statistical analysis skills; to train students’ final decision-making together with problem-solving skills, as well as own lesson plans…”
BackgroundWinters, S., Farnsworth, K., Berry, D., Ellard, S., Glazewski, K. D., & Brush, T. A. (2021) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2021.1928709 · Cited by 13
“While emphasis is placed on the importance of a well-designed problem for a successful PBL experience (Hung, 2016; Sockalingam & Schmidt, 2011), the ill-structured nature of such problems places a heavy cognitive load on learners as they engage in problem-solving (Hmelo-Silver, 2004; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundWork-in-Progress-Design and Evaluation of Mixed Reality Programs for Cybersecurity Education
Shen, C.-C., Chiou, Y.-M., Mouza, C., et al. (2021) · International Conference of the Immersive Learning Research Network (iLRN) · doi:10.23919/ilrn52045.2021.9459309 · Cited by 9
The Doer Effect: Replicating Findings that Doing Causes Learning
Campenhout, R. V., Johnson, B. G., & Olsen, J. (2021) · Cited by 9
Soysal, Y. (2022) · Science & Education · doi:10.1007/s11191-021-00266-3 · Cited by 9
Professional Competencies for Teaching Physics
Fischer, H. E., & Kauertz, A. (2021) · Challenges in physics education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-87391-2_2 · Cited by 11
Videobasierte Kasuistik in der Lehre
Syring, M. (2021) · Verlag Julius Klinkhardt eBooks · doi:10.35468/5870-12 · Cited by 9
Nazare, J., Woolf, A. R., Sysoev, I., Ballinger, S., Saveski, M., Walker, M. M., & Roy, D. K. (2022) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104565 · Cited by 10
Tan, L., Wei, B., & Cui, T. (2022) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2022.2151328 · Cited by 18
“In practice, autonomy with suitable structure and guidance may be more beneficial for students’ learning (Basten et al., 2014; Hong & Diamond, 2012; Isik-Ercan, 2020; Jang et al., 2010; Kirschner et al., 2006; Vansteenkiste et al., 2012).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialReflections on Problem-Solving
Koichu, B. (2013) · Advances in mathematics education · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7473-5_8 · Cited by 9
Amassing Information: The Information Store Principle
Sweller, J., Ayres, P., & Kalyuga, S. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-8126-4_2 · Cited by 12
Self-citationInquiry-Based Science Education in Secondary School Informatics – Challenges and Rewards
Nikolova, N., & Stefanova, E. P. (2014) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-54338-8_2 · Cited by 9
“We can find reasons for such a view in some scientific papers [13], where inquiry based science education and project-based learning are associated with minimal guidance during instruction.”
BackgroundInventing motivates and prepares student teachers for computer‐based learning
Glogger‐Frey, I., Kappich, J., Schwonke, R., Holzäpfel, L., Nückles, M., & Renkl, A. (2015) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12097 · Cited by 11
DESIGN OF PROACTIVE SCENARIOS AND RULES FOR ENHANCED E-LEARNING
Reis, S., Shirnin, D., & Zampuniéris, D. (2012) · International Conference on Computer Supported Education · doi:10.5220/0003956302530258 · Cited by 9
“In the later years more and more studies about theories of learning have accentuated the importance of feedback and practice (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundThe challenges of implementing project based learning in the 21st century classroom
Tally, T. N. (2015) · UVic’s Research and Learning Repository (University of Victoria) · Cited by 9
Papa, F. (2014) · Diagnosis · doi:10.1515/dx-2013-0013 · Cited by 12
“, stored cases and disease/feature weighting rules) theorized as underlying transfer, and subsequently lead to improvements in diagnostic performance [21–23].”
BackgroundLet the Questions Be Your Guide: MBE as Interdisciplinary Science
Rose, L. T., Daley, S. G., & Rose, D. H. (2011) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/j.1751-228x.2011.01123.x · Cited by 9
Vogeltanz‐Holm, N. D., Olson, L. M., Borg, K. E., & Hill, T. (2014) · Medical Science Educator · doi:10.1007/s40670-014-0008-3 · Cited by 9
“Our faculty hypothesized that adapting TBL into the curriculum would promote greater student engagement and satisfaction and potentially improved learning through (a) weekly examination- and peer-based accountability which should lead to more meaningful discussions and thus the potential for development of higher-orde…”
BackgroundExperiential Jewish Education Has Arrived! Now What?
Kress, J. S. (2014) · Journal of Jewish Education · doi:10.1080/15244113.2014.937202 · Cited by 9
“What Jewish knowledge or skills are actually gained through EJE experience, and how does this intersect with identity-promotion? This is particularly relevant given concerns about EJE being “content light” (Sales, 2014) and mixed results in general education when experiential methods are used to address specific conte…”
MethodPerspective: A Tale of Two Curricula: A Case for Evidence-Based Education?
Taylor, C. R. (2010) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0b013e3181cc8f56 · Cited by 9
Empowering Students as Knowledge Builders
van Aalst, J., & Chan, C. K. K. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-2642-0_6 · Cited by 9
“Without a gradual implementation path, discussions can be unfocused and unproductive (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
BackgroundMiller, L. D., Shell, D. F., Khandaker, N., et al. (2011) · Journal of Educational Technology Systems · doi:10.2190/et.39.3.g · Cited by 9
“…learning certainly characterizes much of the learning and development of children and underlies most of our “real world” learning in employment and social settings, there are problems with this approach for learning in formal academic and training sessions (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
BackgroundTo See or Not to See: Effects of Online Access to Peer-Generated Questions on Performance
Yu, F. Y. (2013) · Cited by 9
Psychological Factors Affecting Medical Students’ Learning with Erroneous Worked Examples
Klopp, E., Stark, R., Kopp, V., & Fischer, M. R. (2013) · Journal of Education and Learning · doi:10.5539/jel.v2n1p158 · Cited by 9
“Unsupported PBL is not effective (Kirschner et al., 2006) so specific measures of instructional support have to be integrated in PBL-programs (Krause, Stark & Herzmann, 2011; Schmidt et al.”
BackgroundInstructional design or school politics? A discussion of ‘orchestration' in TEL research
Perrotta, C., & Evans, M. A. (2012) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2012.00494.x · Cited by 10
Clark, R. E. (2010) · Cited by 9
Self-citationMenekşe, M. (2012) · Cited by 9
The Differential Effects of Interactive versus Didactic Pedagogy Using Computer-Assisted Instruction
Thomas, T., Alexander, K., Jackson, R. E., & Abrami, P. C. (2013) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/ec.49.4.a · Cited by 9
“Theoretical and practical implications of the debates surrounding interactive versus didactic pedagogies (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Schmidt et al., 2007; Sweller, Kirschner, & Clark, 2007; Tobias & Duffy, 2009), and future research recommendations are discussed.”
BackgroundVlaardingerbroek, B., Taylor, N., Bale, C., et al. (2016) · Journal of Biological Education · doi:10.1080/00219266.2016.1177574 · Cited by 9
“It is pertinent to note that microscopy lab work is necessarily ‘guided’ in the sense of being structured rather than of the ‘open-ended inquiry’ type, given that the former results in more effective learning (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
BackgroundFostering First Graders’ Reasoning Strategies with Basic Sums: The Value of Guided Instruction
Purpura, D. J., Baroody, A. J., Eiland, M. D., & Reid, E. E. (2016) · The Elementary School Journal · doi:10.1086/687809 · Cited by 9
“As Kirschner et al. (2006) noted, although guided instruction is generallymore effective than unguided instruction, this advantage recedes “when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide ‘internal’ guidance” (p. 75).”
BackgroundThe Effect of Integrated Instructions on Reading Comprehension, Motivation, and Cognitive Variables.
Alhabahba, M. M., Pandian, A., & Mahfoodh, O. H. A. (2016) · Issues in educational research · Cited by 8
Margulieux, L. E., McCracken, W., & Catrambone, R. (2015) · Digital Archive @ GSU · doi:10.22318/cscl2015.209 · Cited by 9
“Instead of starting with application of information, Kirschner et al. (2006) suggest that students should be taught a basic level of information and how to organize it to provide necessary cognitive structure for a topic before starting application activities.”
BackgroundPaz, S. D. L., & Butler, C. M. (2018) · Learning Disabilities: a Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.18666/ldmj-2018-v23-i2-9064 · Cited by 9
García‐Macías, E., Castro‐Triguero, R., Flores, E. I. S., et al. (2019) · Computer Applications in Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/cae.22112 · Cited by 9
“[3] Active learning is often contrasted to the traditional lecture where students passively receive information from the instructor.”
BackgroundDever, D. A., & Azevedo, R. (2019) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-23204-7_11 · Cited by 11
Williams, P. J., & Mangan, J. (2016) · Journal of Research in STEM Education · doi:10.51355/jstem.2016.19 · Cited by 9
Teacher and student enactments of a transdisciplinary art-science-computing unit
Finch, L., Moreno, C., & Shapiro, R. B. (2020) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-020-09518-1 · Cited by 9
A META-ANALYSIS OF PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING:
Walker, A. E., Leary, H., & Lefler, M. (2015) · Purdue University Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/j.ctt6wq6fh.25 · Cited by 9
Digital natives and other myths
Johnson, N. F. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781316091968.004 · Cited by 8
Developing a pedagogical model for simulation-based healthcare education
Keskitalo, E. T. (2015) · LaCRIS (University of Lapland) · Cited by 9
Cognitive foundations of TRIZ problem-solving tools
Belski, I., & Belski, I. (2008) · RMIT Research Repository (RMIT University Library) · Cited by 9
Exploiting Learner Models Using Data Mining for E-Learning: A Rule Based Approach
Holzhüter, M., Frosch‐Wilke, D., & Klein, U. (2012) · Smart innovation, systems and technologies · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-30171-1_4 · Cited by 9
What TIMSS Tells Us about Instructional Practice in K-12 Mathematics Education
Lee, D., & Huh, Y. (2014) · Contemporary Educational Technology · doi:10.30935/cedtech/6131 · Cited by 9
Engaging ALL Students in Engineering
Cunningham, C. M., & Lachapelle, C. (2020) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--21286 · Cited by 10
Hidden in Plain Sight: Pre-Service Teachers’ Orientations Toward Inquiry-Based Learning in History
Pellegrino, A., & Kilday, J. E. (2013) · Journal of Social Studies Education Research · doi:10.17499/jsser.03643 · Cited by 9
Engeln, K., Mikelskis-Seifert, S., & Euler, M. (2013) · Contributions from science education research · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7281-6_14 · Cited by 10
van der Pol, J. (2009) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-654-9.ch008 · Cited by 9
Characteristics of Problems in Problem-based Learning
Sockalingam, N. (2010) · RePub (Erasmus University Rotterdam) · Cited by 9
Hämäläinen, R. (2008) · Jyväskylä University Digital Archive (University of Jyväskylä) · Cited by 9
PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF SCIENCE EDUCATION AT SECONDARY LEVEL IN PAKISTAN
Ahmad, F. F. (2011) · Cited by 9
Towards a Research Agenda for Educational Technology Research
Kirschner, P. A., & Liesbeth Kester, A. (2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118736494.ch27 · Cited by 9
Self-citationKnowledge Development in Early Childhood
Pinkham, A. M., Herold, L., & Neuman, S. B. (2013) · doi:10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0100 · Cited by 9
Editorial: Digital learning and education in a project society
Konstantinou, E., Nachbagauer, A. G. M., & Wehnes, H. (2023) · Project Leadership and Society · doi:10.1016/j.plas.2023.100083 · Cited by 16
“” Recent research emphasises the importance of student engagement and participation for motivation, satisfaction and success in teaching (Kirschner et al., 2006; Westwood, 2008), a role shift from a hierarchical teacher-centred to student-centred approaches to learning is required (Ammenwerth,…”
BackgroundPears, M., Smit, A.-M., van Oost, M., et al. (2023) · INTED proceedings · doi:10.21125/inted.2023 · Cited by 9
The cultural complexity of problem-based learning across the world
Frambach, J. (2014) · doi:10.26481/dis.20140326jf · Cited by 10
Understanding Spatial Skills and Encoding Strategies in Student Problem Solving Activities
Parkinson, J., & Cutts, Q. I. (2023) · ACM Conference on International Computing Education Research (ICER) · doi:10.1145/3568813.3600134 · Cited by 9
“This ties into mental model construction as well: cognitive overload can inhibit the initial construction of mental models [23].”
BackgroundYu, S.-L., Jantharajit, N., & Srikhao, S. (2024) · Asian Journal of Education and Training · doi:10.20448/edu.v10i1.5323 · Cited by 13
“On one hand, the perspectives of Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark emphasize the limitations of working memory and the advantages of direct teaching methods in reducing the burden on working memory (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
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