The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
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- Ausubel D. P., 1964, The Arithmetic Teacher, 11, 290
- Bernstein, D. A., Penner, L. A., Clarke-Stewart, A., Roy, E. J. & Wickens, C. D. (2003). Psychology (6th ed.). Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
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- Glaser, R. (1987). Further notes toward a psychology of instruction. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Advances in instructional psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 1-39). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
- Kolb, D. A. (1971). Individual learning styles and the learning process (Working Paper No. 535-71). Cambridge, MA: Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
- Kolb, D. A. & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Studies of group process (pp. 33-57). New York: Wiley.
- Roblyer M. D., 1996, Learning and Leading With Technology, 24, 12
- Trafton, J. G. & Reiser, R. J. (1993). The contribution of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition. In M. Polson (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1017-1022). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 2,901–3,000 of 6,869
Playing an Augmented Reality Escape Game Promotes Learning About Fake News
Buchner, J. (2024) · Technology Knowledge and Learning · doi:10.1007/s10758-024-09749-y · Cited by 17
“According to CLT, problem-based learning environments increase extraneous cognitive load (Kirschner et al., 2006), also known as unproductive cognitive load, while decreasing productive cognitive processing.”
Active methods in Entrepreneurship Education: a case study with engineering students
Hammoda, B., & Winkler, C. (2024) · European Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1080/03043797.2024.2384893 · Cited by 16
“The constructivist views of Piaget form the basis for current active learning processes, which aim at developing reasoning, problem-solving, critical thinking, and experiential learning skills (Hu and Driscoll 2013; Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
Holstein, S., & Cohen, A. (2025) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2025.101772 · Cited by 20
Tucholka, I., & Gold, B. (2025) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102084 · Cited by 11
Kusumaningsih, S. N., & Sun, J. (2025) · Learning Culture and Social Interaction · doi:10.1016/j.lcsi.2025.100920 · Cited by 16
LIVING MACHINERY - Advantages of Webble Technologies for Teaching and Learning
Fujima, J., Hawlitschek, A., & Hoppe, I. (2010) · International Conference on Computer Supported Education · doi:10.5220/0002779502150220 · Cited by 8
“There is also a main research area dealing with discovery learning, which mainly shows that in some cases guided learning is more effective for learners (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundNorton, S. J. (2012) · Griffith Research Online · Cited by 8
Transforming undergraduate biology learning with inquiry-based instruction
Frisch, J. K., Jackson, P. C., & Murray, M. C. (2017) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-017-9155-z · Cited by 10
“…education did not have an operationalized definition of ‘inquirybased science instruction’, and suggested that this definitional problem could account for the reasons some scholars and practitioners are resistant to, or reject the efficacy of, inquiry-based instruction (see Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundEffects of Scaled-up Professional Development Courses About Inquiry-Based Learning on Teachers
Maaß, K., & Engeln, K. (2018) · Journal of Education and Training Studies · doi:10.11114/jets.v6i4.3083 · Cited by 12
“For example, Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) characterize IBL as a minimal guidance approach and conclude that this approach does not work.”
BackgroundUse of dialogue to scaffold students’ inquiry-based learning
Kolstø, S. D. (2018) · Nordic Studies in Science Education · doi:10.5617/nordina.6164 · Cited by 9
A Systematic Review of Interleaving as a Concept Learning Strategy
Firth, J., Rivers, I., & Boyle, J. (2019) · Social Science Protocols · doi:10.7565/ssp.2019.2650 · Cited by 8
Rogiers, A., Merchie, E., & Keer, H. V. (2020) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.2019.1711005 · Cited by 9
“…how, when, and why to apply strategies, (c) creating various practice opportunities for students while providing feedback, and (d) gradually releasing guidance to internalize the strategies (Garner, 1990; Graham & Harris, 1994; Kirschner et al., 2006; Pressley et al., 1989; Weinstein et al., 2011).”
BackgroundShaping Perceptions of Basic Science Education by Utilizing Real Patient Encounters
Abali, E. E., Rashid, H., Copeland, H. L., Calt, M., DeMaio, R., Patel, J., Schild, S. D., Phadtare, S., Chai, L. F., & Ullo, M. (2020) · Medical Science Educator · doi:10.1007/s40670-020-00951-y · Cited by 8
Interweaving Transmission and Inquiry in Mathematics and Sciences Instruction
Godino, J. D., & Burgos, M. (2020) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-45344-2_2 · Cited by 8
Cross‐national comparisons of inquiry learning in secondary geography curricula
Lee, S. J., Kriewaldt, J., & Roberts, M. (2021) · The Curriculum Journal · doi:10.1002/curj.126 · Cited by 8
The effects of example-free instruction and worked examples on problem-solving
Lange, C. H., Almusharraf, N., Николаевна, К. Ю., & Costley, J. (2021) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07785 · Cited by 17
Velez, A. K., Lewis, S. N., Thomas, R. C., & Ozkan, D. S. (2021) · Journal of Advanced Academics · doi:10.1177/1932202x211061121 · Cited by 11
“While there are historical debates about the proper environment for engaging in IBL (Ausubel, 1962; Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Kirschner et al., 2006; Lazonder, & Harmsen, 2016; Taba, 1963), there appears to be a consensus that the practice can translate to successful learning outcomes for younger…”
BackgroundThe Collaboration Principle in Multimedia Learning
Janssen, J. J. H. M., Kirschner, F., & Kirschner, P. A. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108894333.032 · Cited by 9
Self-citationInnovations in geomatics teaching during the COVID-19 emergency
Botto, M., Federici, B., Ferrando, I., Gagliolo, S., & Sguerso, D. (2022) · Applied Geomatics · doi:10.1007/s12518-022-00416-4 · Cited by 8
Spooner, K. (2022) · International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/0020739x.2021.2009052 · Cited by 8
Boomgaarden, A., Loibl, K., & Leuders, T. (2022) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2022.2038636 · Cited by 9
“Although students generating their own ideas during the learning process is at the core of discovery-based learning, the learning outcomes depend on the orientation towards the intended learning goals (Kirschner et al., 2006; Mayer, 2004; Noss et al., 2012; Noss & Hoyles, 1996).”
BackgroundEthics and Simulation Games in a Cultural Context: Why Should We Bother? And What Can We Learn?
Heeswijk, M. D. W.-V., & Leigh, E. (2022) · Translational systems sciences · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-0348-9_9 · Cited by 8
Student-Perceived Value on the Use of Clay Modelling in Undergraduate Clinical Anatomy
Correia, J. C., Baatjes, K., & Meyer, I. S. (2022) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-10889-1_7 · Cited by 8
Epistemologie und Didaktik als Grundbestimmungen der Wissenschaftsdidaktik
Langemeyer, I. (2022) · Wissenschaftsdidaktik · doi:10.14361/9783839460979-003 · Cited by 8
The Development of Multivariable Causality Strategy: Instruction or Simulation First?
Saba, J., Kapur, M., & Roll, I. (2023) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-36272-9_4 · Cited by 8
Spaan, W., Oostdam, R., Schuitema, J. A., & Pijls, M. (2023) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635143.2023.2268005 · Cited by 13
“Since practical work by its very nature demands attention to hands-on aspects, there is a risk that students will be distracted from focussing on TBF (Agustian and Seery 2017; Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
PENDIDIKAN AGAMA ISLAM DALAM SISTEM PENDIDIKAN MERDEKA BELAJAR
Khadafie, M. (2023) · TAJDID Jurnal Pemikiran Keislaman dan Kemanusiaan · doi:10.52266/tadjid.v7i1.1757 · Cited by 8
Valsecchi, W. M., Delfino, J. M., Santos, J., & Faraj, S. E. (2023) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/d3rp00053b · Cited by 14
Bortes, C., & Giota, J. (2024) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2024.101937 · Cited by 17
Lord, T., Horwitz, P., Lee, H., Pallant, A., & Lore, C. (2024) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-024-10126-8 · Cited by 8
“To teach effectively with this approach and maximize student learning, teachers must remain engaged (Kirschner et al., 2006), actively facilitate inquiry-based curriculum units (Furtak et al., 2012), and support students as they perform inquiry tasks such as interpreting simulation output…”
Steins, G., & Haep, A. (2015) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2015.69107 · Cited by 8
Ahn, J. (2010) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network) · Cited by 8
Using the Work System Method with Freshman Information Systems Students
Recker, J., & Alter, S. (2012) · Journal of Information Technology Education Innovations in Practice · doi:10.28945/1544 · Cited by 9
Inquiry-Based Teaching in the College Classroom: The Nontraditional Student
Kiernan, D. A., & Lotter, C. R. (2019) · The American Biology Teacher · doi:10.1525/abt.2019.81.7.479 · Cited by 9
“Alouf and Bentley (2003) showed a positive correlation, while others like Kirschner et al. (2006) argued for no connection at all.”
BackgroundMirasi, W., Osodo, J., & Kibirige, I. (2013) · Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences · doi:10.5901/mjss.2013.v4n14p81 · Cited by 8
Cultural emergence: Theorizing culture in and from the margins of science education
Wood, N. B., Erichsen, E. A., & Anicha, C. L. (2012) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21069 · Cited by 8
Cognitive Load Theory and Mathematics Learning: A Systematic Review
Aditomo, A. (2009) · ANIMA Indonesian Psychological Journal · doi:10.24123/aipj.v24i3.4427 · Cited by 8
“By extension, Kirschner et al. (2006) are claiming that mathematics instruction should solely consist of direct instruction (e.g. worked examples) and be stripped of any problem solving and inquiry activities.”
Science, Data and Decisions in New Zealand's Education System
Riley, B. (2014) · Cited by 8
Miller, M. A. (2007) · Cited by 8
Moli, L., Delserieys, A., Impedovo, M. A., & Castéra, J. (2016) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-016-9527-4 · Cited by 8
“Of current interest, however, is a discussion about the right level of guidance during discovery learning of scientific concepts with the support of computer simulation (Alfieri et al. 2011; Jong and Joolingen 1998; Honomichl and Chen 2012; Kirschner et al. 2006; Mayer 2004; Leutner 1993).”
BackgroundManipulating Multimedia Materials
Reed, S. K. (2009) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-158-2.ch004 · Cited by 8
Barak, M., Kaštelan, I., & Azia, Z. (2016) · Advances in intelligent systems and computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-27540-6_10 · Cited by 9
“[17] show, learners need some preparation and basic guidance before being involved in project-based learning.”
BackgroundAnalyzing students' software redesign strategies
Stuurman, S., Passier, H. J. M., & Barendsen, E. (2016) · Koli Calling International Conference on Computing Education Research · doi:10.1145/2999541.2999559 · Cited by 8
“A second form of scaffolding is to provide a student not only with conceptual knowledge, but also with procedural guidance regarding the steps to take to solve the problem, and ways to recognize an acceptable solution [12, 24].”
BackgroundCognitive Load Theory: What We Learn and How We Learn
Sweller, J. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-17727-4_50-1 · Cited by 8
Self-citationWhitney, R. V., & Fox, W. W. (2017) · The Open Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.15453/2168-6408.1246 · Cited by 8
Project-Based Learning of Environmental Engineering: A Case Study
Karim, M. (2015) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/p.24607 · Cited by 8
Emerging Technologies for Workplace Learning
Wang, M. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-64532-2_3 · Cited by 10
Cao, H., Amanbayeva, M. B., Maimatayeva, A., et al. (2017) · Eurasia Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education · doi:10.12973/ejmste/79792 · Cited by 8
Instructors’ Inquiry-Expecting Bias : Role-Judgment Experiments
Kinda, S. (2017) · The Japanese Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.5926/jjep.65.388 · Cited by 8
Task Variation and Mental Models Divergence Influencing the Transfer of Team Learning
Toader, A. F., & Kessler, T. (2018) · Small Group Research · doi:10.1177/1046496418786429 · Cited by 7
Establishing Best Practices for Effective Online Learning Modules: a Single Institution Study
Cobb, C. A., Watson, C. T., & Ellis, S. R. (2018) · Medical Science Educator · doi:10.1007/s40670-018-0613-7 · Cited by 10
A Mind with a Mind of Its Own: How Complexity Theory Can Inform Early Science Pedagogy
Kloos, H., Baker, H., & Waltzer, T. (2019) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-019-09472-6 · Cited by 8
Kim, Y. (2019) · Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education · doi:10.1111/dsji.12175 · Cited by 10
Developing an Outcome-Based ESP Course with Blended-Learning Method for Chinese Undergraduates
Du, W., & Wang, Y. (2019) · Creative Education · doi:10.4236/ce.2019.108132 · Cited by 13
“The functions of the task flow chart are mentioned in Kirschner et al. (2015), which are to help learners be aware of the tasks at each stage, the problems that need to be solved, and concepts need to be learned, and hence, to effectively improve learning efficiency.”
BackgroundTulloch-Palomino, L. G., Relan, A., Curello, J., et al. (2019) · Medical Science Educator · doi:10.1007/s40670-019-00804-3 · Cited by 8
Sarter, E. K. (2019) · Teaching Public Administration · doi:10.1177/0144739419875177 · Cited by 8
“In addition, support and guidance is needed to prevent that ‘students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge’ (Kirschner et al., 2006: 84).”
BackgroundInfluentialComparing attitudinal learning of large enrolment active learning and lecture classes
Watson, W. R., Watson, S. L., Magar, S. T., et al. (2020) · Innovations in Education and Teaching International · doi:10.1080/14703297.2019.1711440 · Cited by 8
Using Project-Based Learning to Teach STEAM
Ubben, G. (2019) · Environmental discourses in science education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-25101-7_6 · Cited by 12
Worked Examples, Cognitive Load, and Exam Assessments in a Senior Database Course
Knorr, E. M. (2020) · ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education (SIGCSE) · doi:10.1145/3328778.3366915 · Cited by 9
“In order to solve or process a problem, and to store the learned construct in long-term memory, our brain needs to use Paper Session: Database short-term, working memory which retains information for only about 30 seconds unless it is rehearsed [16].”
BackgroundPutting the onus on authority: A review of obedient behavior and why we should move on
Meyer, M. (2020) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2020.100831 · Cited by 8
Jen, T., Morales, C., Greenwald, E., et al. (2020) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2020.1811920 · Cited by 8
Larsen, Y., Groß, J., & Bogner, F. X. (2020) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci10100284 · Cited by 14
Theoretische Grundlagen zur Methode
Schröppel, H. (2020) · Studium Pflege, Therapie, Gesundheit · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-61928-5_2 · Cited by 8
Constructivist pedagogy in context of modern philosophy of education
Koptseva, N. P. (2020) · Perspectives of science and education · doi:10.32744/pse.2020.6.4 · Cited by 8
Román, H., Sundberg, D., Hirsh, Å., Forsberg, E., & Nilholm, C. (2021) · Review of Education · doi:10.1002/rev3.3258 · Cited by 8
Research Trends of Discovery Learning from 2015 to 2019: A Bibliometric Analysis
Wicaksono, A. G., Sunarno, W., Ashadi, A., & Prayitno, B. A. (2021) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1842/1/012026 · Cited by 8
“The theory believes that students who interact with various objects and events will acquire and understand patterns of handling these objects and events [3], [4].”
BackgroundYaiche, W. (2021) · Arab World English Journal · doi:10.24093/awej/vol12no1.6 · Cited by 8
May problem-based learning get higher evaluation from student?
Yin, Q., Guo, C., Dong, C. J., & Wang, T. (2021) · International Journal of Crowd Science · doi:10.1108/ijcs-12-2020-0019 · Cited by 10
Stiller, C., & Wilde, M. (2021) · Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft · doi:10.1007/s11618-021-01017-4 · Cited by 8
“Dieser Befund unterstützt die Annahme, dass Lernende von strukturierenden Maßnahmen profitieren (Kirschner et al. 2006; Mayer 2004; Oksa et al. 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialLe sujet cognitif de l’apprentissage
Tricot, A. (2014) · Recherches en éducation · doi:10.4000/ree.8519 · Cited by 8
Fifteen Common but Questionable Principles of Multimedia Learning
Feldon, D. F., Jeong, S., & Clark, R. E. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108894333.005 · Cited by 14
“After 2005, there were many debates about this issue (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006; Tobias & Duffy, 2009).”
BackgroundSelf-citationT-CHAT educational framework for teaching cyber-physical system engineering
Mäkiö, E., Azmat, F., Ahmad, B., Harrison, R., & Colombo, A. W. (2021) · European Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1080/03043797.2021.2008879 · Cited by 9
Multimedia and Digital Media in Physics Instruction
Girwidz, R., & Kohnle, A. (2021) · Challenges in physics education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-87391-2_11 · Cited by 20
Digitale Medien in der Berufsbildung – Eine Herausforderung für Lehrkräfte und Ausbildungspersonal?
Hähn, K., & Ratermann-Busse, M. (2020) · Waxmann Verlag GmbH eBooks · doi:10.31244/9783830991991.05 · Cited by 12
Developing accounting students’ team innovation through assessment
Venter, J., Coetzee, S. A., & Schmulian, A. (2022) · The International Journal of Management Education · doi:10.1016/j.ijme.2022.100673 · Cited by 10
Johnstone, A. (2022) · Kairaranga · doi:10.54322/kairaranga.v23i1.331 · Cited by 8
“This type of approach, along with other student-directed learning pedagogies, are challenged by Kirschner et al. (2006), who argue that guided instruction is far more successful f or students’ learning.”
BackgroundJaipal-Jamani, K. (2023) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.979709 · Cited by 8
“It is a minimally guided approach – minimum guidance is given during the activity or information about the task is available for learners if they choose to refer to it (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundResultHughes, R. E., & Marhatta, P. (2023) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2023.104094 · Cited by 8
Shultz, M. (2022) · Journal for Research in Mathematics Education · doi:10.5951/jresematheduc-2020-0306 · Cited by 8
AlAfnan, M. A., & Dishari, S. (2024) · Journal of Education and Learning (EduLearn) · doi:10.11591/edulearn.v18i3.21408 · Cited by 21
“[19] believe that empowering students and giving them the freedom to decide what to learn, on the one hand, and reaching their conclusion, on the other hand, leads to overlooking empirical findings and research.”
BackgroundThe complexities of assessments in professional hospitality education
Brinkman-Staneva, M. (2015) · Quality Assurance in Education · doi:10.1108/qae-04-2015-0016 · Cited by 8
Teaching Inquiry Based Stem In The Elementary Grades Using Manipulatives: A Systemic Solution Report
Nadelson, L. S., Hay, A., Pyke, P., et al. (2020) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--16395 · Cited by 8
Automated Scenario Generation - Coupling Planning Techniques with Smart Objects
Ferdinandus, G. R., Peeters, M. M. M., den Bosch, K. V., & Meyer, J. C. (2013) · International Conference on Computer Supported Education · doi:10.5220/0004354600760081 · Cited by 8
An Innovative Perspective on Learning and Teaching in Higher Education in the 21st Century
Corte, E. D. (2014) · Voprosy Obrazovaniya/ Educational Studies Moscow · doi:10.17323/1814-9545-2014-3-8-29 · Cited by 8
Formative e-feedback in collaborative writing assignments: the effect of the process and time
Guasch, T., Espasa, A., & Valdivia, I. M. Á. (2010) · RACO (Revistes Catalanes amb Accés Obert) (Consorci de Serveis Universitaris de Catalunya) · Cited by 8
Kay, R. H. (2011) · Interdisciplinary Journal of e-Skills and Lifelong Learning · doi:10.28945/1387 · Cited by 8
“This minimal level of instructional guidance is referred to by a variety of names including discovery learning, problem-based learning, inquiry learning, and constructivist learning (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Sousa, C. (2014) · Multidisciplinary Journal for Education Social and Technological Sciences · doi:10.4995/muse.2014.2249 · Cited by 8
“…studies showed that middle school students in optional-scaffold conditions performed significantly better than students in a no-scaffold condition (Kirschner et al. 2006; Schmidt et al. 2011), so, in this study, we used hard scaffolds for the seventh graders, and in both classes, the author (in…”
MethodA Comparison of Unguided vs Guided Case-Based Instruction on the Surgery Clerkship
Adamas‐Rappaport, W. J., Waer, A. L., Teeple, M., Benjamin, M. A., Glazer, E. S., Sozanski, J., Poskus, D. M., & Ong, E. (2012) · Journal of surgical education · doi:10.1016/j.jsurg.2012.06.014 · Cited by 8
At the Crossroads: The Impact of New Irish Science Curricula on First Year Post-Primary Students
Varley, J., Murphy, C., & Veale, Ó. (2011) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-011-9252-3 · Cited by 9
“Such claims about the impact of IBSE have not been without criticism, however (e.g. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundWhen Practice Doesn’t Make Perfect
Miller, C. S., & Settle, A. (2011) · ACM Transactions on Computing Education · doi:10.1145/2048931.2048933 · Cited by 8
3C3R Modified PBL Pediatric Teaching of Chinese Medical Students
Xue, H., Qian, J., Wang, L., et al. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0063412 · Cited by 8
“Skeptics are adamant that PBL is expensive and inefficient, since it takes more time for students to achieve the desired learning outcomes compared to conventional teaching [7] and it is less effective than traditional methods, because its minimum guidelines do not meet the requirements of the human cognitive system […”
BackgroundRetrospective perceptions and views of engineering students about physics and engineering practicals
Bhathal, R. S. (2011) · European Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1080/03043797.2011.599062 · Cited by 8
“(2006) : ‘takes into account our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences and cognitive load’.”
BackgroundAnimated Demonstrations: Evidence of Improved Performance Efficiency and the Worked Example Effect
Lewis, D., & Barron, A. E. (2009) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-02806-9_29 · Cited by 8
“Instructors have purpose in any environment for they provide guidance and support [ 23 ].”
BackgroundIntegrating a Story Writing Strategy into a Resource Curriculum
Patel, P. K., & Laud, L. E. (2007) · Teaching Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/004005990703900404 · Cited by 8
Augmenting Design Education with Mobile Social Media: A Transferable Framework
Cochrane, T., & Withell, A. (2013) · Asian Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning · doi:10.24112/ajsotl.33009 · Cited by 8
Lant, C. L., Pérez-Lapeña, B., Xiong, W., et al. (2016) · Journal of Geoscience Education · doi:10.5408/14-004.1 · Cited by 8
Effects of Case Libraries in Supporting a Problem-Based Learning STEM Course
Tawfik, A. A., & Trueman, R. J. (2015) · Journal of Educational Technology Systems · doi:10.1177/0047239515596724 · Cited by 8
“Although critics argue that this method of instruction may result in cognitive overload (Kirschner et al., 2006), emergent research has shown that problem-centered pedagogy outperforms lecture-based instruction (Walker, Leary, & Walker, 2009) for higher order learning objectives such as critical thinking skills, long-…”
BackgroundApplication of Virtual Environments for Infantry Soldier Skills Training: We are Doing it Wrong
Maxwell, D. B. (2016) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-39907-2_41 · Cited by 8
Using Inquiry-Based Learning to Teach Additional Languages in a High School Context
Caputo, L. (2014) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s2055-364120140000002023 · Cited by 8
Karlen, Y. (2016) · Pedocs (German Institute for International Educational Research) · doi:10.5167/uzh-126535 · Cited by 8
“Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) indicated that providing more autonomy to students with low experiences in strategic behavior could be detrimental as opposed to providing clear coaching.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
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