Beyond the ‘east–west’ dichotomy: Global variation in cultural models of selfhood.
Open accessAbstract
Markus and Kitayama's (1991) theory of independent and interdependent self-construals had a major influence on social, personality, and developmental psychology by highlighting the role of culture in psychological processes. However, research has relied excessively on contrasts between North American and East Asian samples, and commonly used self-report measures of independence and interdependence frequently fail to show predicted cultural differences. We revisited the conceptualization and measurement of independent and interdependent self-construals in 2 large-scale multinational surveys, using improved methods for cross-cultural research. We developed (Study 1: N = 2924 students in 16 nations) and validated across cultures (Study 2: N = 7279 adults from 55 cultural groups in 33 nations) a new 7-dimensional model of self-reported ways of being independent or interdependent. Patterns of global variation support some of Markus and Kitayama's predictions, but a simple contrast between independence and interdependence does not adequately capture the diverse models of selfhood that prevail in different world regions. Cultural groups emphasize different ways of being both independent and interdependent, depending on individualism-collectivism, national socioeconomic development, and religious heritage. Our 7-dimensional model will allow future researchers to test more accurately the implications of cultural models of selfhood for psychological processes in diverse ecocultural contexts. (PsycINFO Database Record
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General self-concept is conceptualized differently across cultures.
“general self-concept is conceptualized differently across cultures (Becker et al., 2012;Taras et al., 2010;Vignoles et al., 2016).”
From Motivation-Achievement Cycles in Learning: a Literature Review and Research Agenda (2022) · cites this paper as Vignoles et al., 2016
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“Eastern culture refers primarily to countries located in Asia, including East, Southeast, and parts of Western Asia, including China, Japan, Korea and India (van de Vijver, 2013; Vignoles et al., 2016).”
- Authors
- Vignoles, V. L., Owe, E., Becker, M., Smith, P. B., Easterbrook, M. J., Brown, R., González, R., Didier, N., Carrasco, D., Cadena, M. P., Lay, S., Schwartz, S. J., Des Rosiers, S. E., Villamar, J. A., Gavreliuc, A., Zinkeng, M., Kreuzbauer, R., Baguma, P., Martin, M., Tatarko, A., Herman, G., de Sauvage, I., Courtois, M., Garðarsdóttir, R. B., Harb, C., Schweiger Gallo, I., Prieto Gil, P., Lorente Clemares, R., Campara, G., Nizharadze, G., Macapagal, M. E. J., Jalal, B., Bourguignon, D., Zhang, J., Lv, S., Chybicka, A., Yuki, M., Zhang, X., Espinosa, A., Valk, A., Abuhamdeh, S., Amponsah, B., Özgen, E., Güner, E. Ü., Yamakoğlu, N., Chobthamkit, P., Pyszczynski, T., Kesebir, P., Vargas Trujillo, E., Balanta, P., Cendales Ayala, B., Koller, S. H., Jaafar, J. L., Gausel, N., Fischer, R., Milfont, T. L., Kusdil, E., Çağlar, S., Aldhafri, S., Ferreira, M. C., Mekonnen, K. H., Wang, Q., Fülöp, M., Torres, A., Camino, L., Lemos, F. C. S., Fritsche, I., Möller, B., Regalia, C., Manzi, C., Brambilla, M., & Bond, M. H.
- Affiliations
- University of Sussex (GB)
- Laboratoire Cognition, Langues, Langage, Ergonomie (FR)
- Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (CL)
- University of Miami (US)
- Northwestern University (US)
- West University of Timişoara (RO)
- University of Buea (CM)
- Nanyang Technological University (SG)
- Makerere University (UG)
- University of Namibia (NA)
- National Research University Higher School of Economics (RU)
- UCLouvain (BE)
- University of Iceland (IS)
- American University of Beirut (LB)
- Universidad Complutense de Madrid (ES)
- Free University of Tbilisi (GE)
- Ateneo de Manila University (PH)
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Psychologie Ergonomique et Sociale pour l'Expérience Utilisateurs (FR)
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CN)
- North China University of Science and Technology (CN)
- University of Gdańsk (PL)
- Hokkaido University (JP)
- The University of Osaka (JP)
- Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú (PE)
- University of Tartu (EE)
- Istanbul Şehir University (TR)
- University of Ghana (GH)
- Yaşar University (TR)
- Bilkent University (TR)
- Thammasat University (TH)
- University of Colorado Colorado Springs (US)
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- National University of Singapore (SG)
- University of Agder (NO)
- Victoria University of Wellington (NZ)
- Ankara University (TR)
- Sultan Qaboos University (OM)
- Universidade Salgado de Oliveira (BR)
- Addis Ababa University (ET)
- Chinese University of Hong Kong (HK)
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience and Psychology (HU)
- Universidade Federal da Paraíba (BR)
- Universidade Federal do Pará (BR)
- Leipzig University (DE)
- Friedrich Schiller University Jena (DE)
- Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore (IT)
- Hong Kong Polytechnic University (HK)
- ORCID
- Vignoles, Vivian L.
- Becker, Maja
- Smith, Peter B.
- Easterbrook, Matthew J.
- Brown, Rupert
- Carrasco, Diego
- Lay, Siugmin
- Schwartz, Seth J.
- Gavreliuc, Alin
- Tatarko, Alexander
- Herman, Ginette
- Garðarsdóttir, Ragna B.
- Harb, Charles
- Macapagal, Ma. Elizabeth J.
- Jalal, Baland
- Bourguignon, David
- Zhang, Jianxin
- Lv, Shaobo
- Chybicka, Aneta
- Yuki, Masaki
- Espinosa, Agustín
- Abuhamdeh, Sami
- Amponsah, Benjamin
- Özgen, Emre
- Chobthamkit, Phatthanakit
- Pyszczynski, Tom
- Kesebir, Pelin
- Koller, Silvia H.
- Jaafar, Jas Laile
- Gausel, Nicolay
- Fischer, Ronald
- Milfont, Taciano L.
- Aldhafri, Said
- Ferreira, M. Cristina
- Wang, Qian
- Lemos, Flávia Cristina Silveira
- Fritsche, Immo
- Regalia, Camillo
- Manzi, Claudia
- Bond, Michael Harris
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
- Published
- 2016-08
- Volume
- 145
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 966-1000
- ISSN
- 0096-3445 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2222
- OpenAlex
- W2474075425
- Cited by
- 601
- References
- 146
- Citations by year
- 2026: 68 · 2025: 73 · 2024: 68 · 2023: 58 · 2022: 62 · 2021: 61 · 2020: 110 · 2019: 44 · 2018: 32 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 3
- FWCI
- 51.98
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- americanae.aecid.es
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology General (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Sussex Research Online (University of Sussex) (submittedVersion)
- Docta Complutense (Universidad Complutense de Madrid) (submittedVersion)
- Bursa Uludag University - AVESIS (submittedVersion)
- Bilkent University Institutional Repository (Bilkent University) (submittedVersion)
- Institutional Repository of Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences) (submittedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- Open Research (University of Surrey) (submittedVersion)
- Americanae (AECID Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- DIAL (Catholic University of Leuven) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Istanbul Şehir University Institutional Repository (Istanbul Şehir University) (submittedVersion)
- Surrey Research Insight Open Access (The University of Surrey) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion)
- PolyU Institutional Research Archive (Hong Kong Polytechnic University) (submittedVersion)
- LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- Economic and Social Research Council (RES-062-23-1300, ES/G015074/1)
- Interdisciplinary Center for Social Conflict and Cohesion Studies (FONDAP/15130009)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Social Representations and Identity
- Keywords
- independent self-construal, interdependent self-construal, self-construal, cross-cultural measurement, individualism-collectivism, religious heritage, self-report scale
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Cross-Cultural Comparison, Culture, Female, Humans, Individuality, Male, Personality, Self Concept, Students, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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