A Behavioral Taxonomy of Loneliness in Humans and Rhesus Monkeys (Macaca mulatta)
Open accessAbstract
Social relationships endow health and fitness benefits, but considerable variation exists in the extent to which individuals form and maintain salutary social relationships. The mental and physical health effects of social bonds are more strongly related to perceived isolation (loneliness) than to objective social network characteristics. We sought to develop an animal model to facilitate the experimental analysis of the development of, and the behavioral and biological consequences of, loneliness. In Study 1, using a population-based sample of older adults, we examined how loneliness was influenced both by social network size and by the extent to which individuals believed that their daily social interactions reflected their own choice. Results revealed three distinct clusters of individuals: (i) individuals with large networks who believed they had high choice were lowest in loneliness, (ii) individuals with small social networks who believed they had low choice were highest in loneliness, and (iii) the remaining two groups were intermediate and equivalent in loneliness. In Study 2, a similar three-group structure was identified in two separate samples of adult male rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) living in large social groups: (i) those high in sociability who had complex social interaction with a broad range of social partners (putatively low in loneliness), (ii) those low in sociability who showed tentative interactions with certain classes of social partners (putatively high in loneliness), and (iii) those low in sociability who interacted overall at low levels with a broad range of social partners (putatively low or intermediate in loneliness). This taxonomy in monkeys was validated in subsequent experimental social probe studies. These results suggest that, in highly social nonhuman primate species, some animals may show a mismatch between social interest and social attainment that could serve as a useful animal model for experimental and mechanistic studies of loneliness.
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Rhesus macaques classified as putatively high in loneliness show leukocyte gene expression changes similar to those observed in lonely human subjects.
“Remarkably, classifying rhesus macaques as putatively high in loneliness (by sociability levels and social initiation attempts)180 revealed leukocyte gene expression changes similar to those observed in lonely human subjects64.”
From Neural mechanisms of social homeostasis (2019) · cites this paper as [180]
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Bauman, M. D., Crawley, J. N., & Berman, R. F. (2019) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470015902.a0022368.pub2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Sueur, C. (2024) · Peer Community In Network Science · doi:10.24072/pci.networksci.100251
McMillan, F. D. (2025) · CABI eBooks · doi:10.1079/9781800624313.0009
Sung, P., Chan, A. W.-M., Visaria, A., & Lee, J. M.-L. (2025) · Social Networks · doi:10.1016/j.socnet.2025.12.005
Maternal immune activation influences social behavior development in a nonhuman primate model
Hubbard, J. A., Chen, S., Iosif, A., Ryan, A. M., Murai, T., Hogrefe, C. E., Lesh, T. A., Smucny, J., Maddock, R. J., Schumann, C. M., et al. (2026) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2026.09.023
- Authors
- Capitanio, J. P., Hawkley, L. C., Cole, S. W., & Cacioppo, J. T.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Davis (US)
- University of Chicago (US)
- Corresponding author
- Capitanio, John P.
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2014-10-29
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- e110307
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4212962
- OpenAlex
- W1998297355
- Cited by
- 40
- References
- 67
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 1
- FWCI
- 7.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Knowledge@UChicago (University of Chicago) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- University of Chicago (cc-by)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (UL1TR000430, 5r01ag036433-02, AG033590, RR000169, P51OD011107)
- National Institute on Aging (R01-AG036433, R01AG034052, R01AG033590)
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01-MH49033, MH49033, R01MH049033)
- National Cancer Institute (R01CA116778, CA-116778)
- National Center for Research Resources (P51RR000169, RR 000169)
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences
- California National Primate Research Center (RR000169)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Primate Behavior and Ecology
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
- Keywords
- loneliness, social networks, social choice, rhesus monkeys, sociability, social bonds, social isolation, social interest, older adults, social interaction behavior
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Female, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Loneliness, Macaca mulatta, Male, Social Support, Models, Animal
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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