Perceived social isolation and cognition
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Social species, from Drosophila melanogaster to Homo sapiens, fare poorly when isolated. Homo sapiens, an irrepressibly meaning-making species, are, in normal circumstances, dramatically affected by perceived social isolation. Research indicates that perceived social isolation (i.e. loneliness) is a risk factor for, and may contribute to, poorer overall cognitive performance, faster cognitive decline, poorer executive functioning, increased negativity and depressive cognition, heightened sensitivity to social threats, a confirmatory bias in social cognition that is self-protective and paradoxically self-defeating, heightened anthropomorphism and contagion that threatens social cohesion. These differences in attention and cognition impact on emotions, decisions, behaviors and interpersonal interactions that can contribute to the association between loneliness and cognitive decline and between loneliness and morbidity more generally.
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Previous reviews report equivocal findings regarding the association between aspects of social connections and cognitive function from both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies.
“Each of these reviews reports equivocal findings regarding the association between aspects of social connections and cognitive function from both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies.”
From Social Isolation and Cognitive Function in Later Life: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (2019) · cites this paper as [52]
The Cognitive Capacities section reports both baseline and longitudinal associations between loneliness and cognition, while the Conclusion notes uncertainty about whether loneliness causes cognitive decline. But the review does not characterize the findings overall as equivocal: it emphasizes consistent associations for loneliness, in contrast to a lack of evidence for effects of social network size or activity. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredLonely individuals struggle to use their social skills and approach social situations in a more defensive manner.
“Lonely individuals also struggle to use their social skills (Knowles et al., 2015) and approach social situations in a more defensive manner (Cacioppo et al., 2006;Cacioppo & Hawkley, 2009), such that even if they are motivated to seek connections with others, these attempts to reconnect may not be successful.”
From Investigating the interplay of loneliness and social isolation across adolescence: Findings from a nationally representative longitudinal study (2026) · cites this paper as Cacioppo & Hawkley, 2009
In longitudinal studies, perceived isolation effects resemble experimental isolation effects in nonhuman social species: higher tonic sympathetic tone and HPA activation, lower inflammatory control and immunity, altered glucocorticoid-regulating gene expression, and glucocorticoid resistance.
“the effects of perceived isolation in these longitudinal studies share much in common with the effects of experimental manipulations of isolation in nonhuman social species: increased tonic sympathetic tonus and HPA activation and decreased inflammatory control and immunity; expression of genes regulating glucocorticoid responses; and glucocorticoid resistance.”
From Social isolation (2011) · cites this paper as [22]
Perceived social isolation is a stronger determinant of harmful outcomes than objective social isolation variation in population-based studies.
“perceived social isolation is a more important determinant of deleterious outcomes than is the variation in objective social isolation that is seen in population based studies”
From Social isolation (2011) · cites this paper as [22]
After 25 generations of selective breeding for high versus low separation USVs, high-line rats showed more infant distress, longer latency to play, and more depression-like, anxiety-like, social interaction latency, startle, and learning deficits as adults; low-line rats were exploratory, active, and aggressive.
“After 25 generations of selective breeding, differences in behavior between the two lines of rats were reminiscent of some of the differences observed in humans who are high or low in perceived isolation:22 the high, relative to low, USV line showed more distress to isolation as an infant; greater latency to play as an adolescent; and greater depression-like behaviors, greater anxiety-like Behavi”
From Social isolation (2011) · cites this paper as [22]
There is an exogenous social positive feedback loop in which altered behaviors evoke more suspicious, distant, and hostile responses from the surrounding social environment.
“a second exogenous social loop (Arc 2) in which altered behaviors evoke more suspicious, distant, and hostile responses from the surrounding social environment [1].”
From Human Social Genomics (2014) · cites this paper as [1]
The overall effect size of loneliness on mortality is difficult to summarize due to lack of uniform measures of loneliness, differences in inclusion of statistical controls, and use of analytic procedures that ignore survival time and censored data.
“In particular, across research studies, the overall effect size of loneliness on mortality is difficult to summarize due to the lack of uniform measures of loneliness [5], differences in the inclusion of statistical controls [26], and the use of analytic procedures that ignore survival time and censored data [24].”
From Loneliness and health in older adults: a mini-review and synthesis (2016) · cites this paper as [26]
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The effects of social isolation stress and discrimination on mental health
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Loneliness in the Modern Age: An Evolutionary Theory of Loneliness (ETL)
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Self-citationSocial brain, social dysfunction and social withdrawal
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The Mental Health Benefits of Physical Activity in Older Adults Survive the COVID-19 Pandemic
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Interpersonal emotion regulation as a mechanism of social support in depression
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Separate neural representations for physical pain and social rejection
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Capturing Social and Behavioral Domains and Measures in Electronic Health Records: Phase 2
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Review: Alleviating loneliness in young people – a meta‐analysis of interventions
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Older adults reporting social isolation or loneliness show poorer cognitive function 4 years later
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Loneliness impairs daytime functioning but not sleep duration.
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The plasticity of well-being: A training-based framework for the cultivation of human flourishing
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Loneliness Across Phylogeny and a Call for Comparative Studies and Animal Models
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Self-citationThe default network of the human brain is associated with perceived social isolation
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The Neurobiology of Social Distance
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Social resilience: The value of social fitness with an application to the military.
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Self-citationWhy empathy has a beneficial impact on others in medicine: unifying theories
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Loneliness Is Associated with Sleep Fragmentation in a Communal Society
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Loneliness Increases the Risk of All-Cause Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease
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- Authors
- Cacioppo, J. T., & Hawkley, L. C.
- Affiliations
- University of Chicago (US)
- Corresponding author
- Cacioppo, John T.
- Venue
- Trends in Cognitive Sciences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2009-10
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 447-454
- ISSN
- 1364-6613 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2752489
- OpenAlex
- W2131334268
- Cited by
- 2,144
- References
- 75
- Citations by year
- 2026: 284 · 2025: 270 · 2024: 202 · 2023: 185 · 2022: 196 · 2021: 202 · 2020: 175 · 2019: 116 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 95 · 2016: 71 · 2015: 76 · 2014: 57 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 37
- FWCI
- 3.93
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Trends in Cognitive Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (Z99 RG999999)
- National Institute on Aging (P01AG18911, P01AG018911, R01AG034052)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- perceived social isolation, loneliness, cognitive decline, executive function, depressive cognitions, confirmation bias, anthropomorphism, social contagion, social cohesion, attention, morbidity
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, Cognition, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Loneliness, Neural Pathways, Neuropsychological Tests, Problem Solving, Social Isolation, Social Perception
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