Why is depression more prevalent in women?
Open accessAbstract
Major depression is a chronic illness with a high prevalence and is a major component of disease burden. Depressive disorders were the second leading cause of years lived with disability in 2010 in Canada, the United States and globally.[1][1],[2][2] When depression-related deaths due to suicide and
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Female gender was noted to have higher levels of depression, anxiety and stress compared to male gender.
“the female gender was noted to have higher levels of depression, anxiety and stress as compared to the male gender.”
From Relationships between psychopathology, psychological process variables, and sociodemographic variables and comparison of quarantined and non-quarantined groups of malaysian university students in the covid-19 pandemic (2021) · cites this paper as [62]
The main text (page not specified) reports higher prevalence of major depression in women than men and refers to increased prevalence of depression and anxiety in women. It does not report higher stress levels in women, and its prevalence findings do not establish higher symptom levels for all three conditions. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSimilar trends were reported during previous pandemics.
“Similar trends were reported during previous pandemics [61,62,63,64].”
From Relationships between psychopathology, psychological process variables, and sociodemographic variables and comparison of quarantined and non-quarantined groups of malaysian university students in the covid-19 pandemic (2021) · cites this paper as [62]
The main text discusses sex differences in depression prevalence, including global and Canadian trends, but does not discuss trends during previous pandemics. Searches for previous pandemics and infectious-disease outbreaks found no passage addressing the claim; the reference-list use of “epidemic” concerns common mental disorders, not a pandemic. (LLM, conf=0.76)
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BackgroundInfluentialSeafarers’ depression and suicide
Mellbye, A., & Carter, T. (2017) · International Maritime Health · doi:10.5603/imh.2017.0020 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
“However, when comparing women seafarers’ anxiety, stress and depression with male seafarers’ the predisposition of women to report these symptoms is well known from other settings [36, 37].”
BackgroundPreez, A. D., Law, T., Onorato, D., Lim, Y. M., Eiben, P., Musaelyan, K., Egeland, M. T., Hye, A., Zunszain, P. A., Thuret, S., et al. (2020) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-020-01000-3 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Shifera, N., Ayenew, M., & Mekuria, R. M. (2020) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s275593 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Halain, A. A., Tang, L. Y., Chong, M. C., Ibrahim, N. A., & Abdullah, K. L. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1111/jocn.15962 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Psychological Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Public in Egypt
Arafa, A., Mohamed, A. A. E., Saleh, L., & Senosy, S. A. (2020) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-020-00701-9 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“Our results showed that women were more likely to suffer psychological disturbances than men which reflects the already known gender gap for depression and anxiety (Albert 2015).”
ResultMartinez, G. J., Appleton, M., Kipp, Z. A., Loria, A. S., Min, B., & Hinds, T. D. (2023) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00021.2023 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Sex Differences in Dopamine Receptors and Relevance to Neuropsychiatric Disorders
Williams, O. O. F., Coppolino, M., George, S. R., & Perreault, M. L. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11091199 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Hamidovic, A., Karapetyan, K., Serdarevic, F., Choi, S. H., Eisenlohr-Moul, T., & Pinna, G. (2020) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2020.00311 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Management of depressive symptoms in peri- and postmenopausal women: EMAS position statement
Stute, P., Spyropoulou, A. C., Karageorgiou, V., Cano, A., Bitzer, J., Ceauşu, I., Chedraui, P. A., Durmuşoğlu, F., Erkkola, R. U., Goulis, D. G., et al. (2019) · Maturitas · doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2019.11.002 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
EEG-based deep learning model for the automatic detection of clinical depression
Thoduparambil, P. P., Dominic, A., & Varghese, S. M. (2020) · Physical and Engineering Sciences in Medicine · doi:10.1007/s13246-020-00938-4 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Social participation and perceived depression among elderly population in South Africa
Hao, G., Bishwajit, G., Tang, S., Nie, C., Ji, L., & Huang, R. (2017) · Clinical Interventions in Aging · doi:10.2147/cia.s137993 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“7:1.(12) Another possible explanation might be the higher rate of reporting difficulty in social participation indicators used in this study (result not shown).”
Sex- and gender-related differences in psoriatic arthritis
Tarannum, S., Leung, Y. Y., Johnson, S. R., Widdifield, J., Strand, V., Rochon, P. A., & Eder, L. (2022) · Nature Reviews Rheumatology · doi:10.1038/s41584-022-00810-7 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Exploratory study on the psychological impact of COVID-19 on the general Brazilian population
Serafim, A. D. P., Durães, R. S. S., Rocca, C. C. D. A., Gonçalves, P. D., Saffi, F., Cappellozza, A., Paulino, M., Dumas-Diniz, R., Brissos, S., Brites, R., et al. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0245868 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Shivappa, N., Schoenaker, D. A. J. M., Hébert, J. R., & Mishra, G. D. (2016) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114516002853 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
“Women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression compared with men((3,4)).”
BackgroundMonitoring Depression Trends on Twitter During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Observational Study
Zhang, Y., Lyu, H., Liu, Y., Zhang, X., Wang, Y., & Luo, J. (2021) · JMIR Infodemiology · doi:10.2196/26769 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
“Women are known to be substantially more likely to have depression [57].”
BackgroundGlobal Prevalence of Depression among Heart Failure Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Moradi, M., Doostkami, M., Behnamfar, N., Rafiemanesh, H., & Behzadmehr, R. (2021) · Current Problems in Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.cpcardiol.2021.100848 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Treatment-Resistant Depression Revisited: A Glimmer of Hope
Halaris, A. E., Sohl, E., & Whitham, E. A. (2021) · Journal of Personalized Medicine · doi:10.3390/jpm11020155 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Tareke, S. A., Lelisho, M. E., Hassen, S. S., Seid, A. A., Jemal, S. S., Teshale, B. M., Wotale, T. W., & Pandey, B. K. (2022) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-021-01195-1 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Depression among caregivers of cancer patients: Updated systematic review and meta‐analysis
Bedaso, A., Kibret, G. D., & Duko, B. (2022) · Psycho-Oncology · doi:10.1002/pon.6045 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“The higher prevalence of depression among female caregivers could be because females are highly exposed to sexual violence and have a higher rate of experiencing mental health problems such as depression than males.(70) Also, the diatheses stress model of depression indicated a preponderance of depression among female…”
BackgroundCreatine supplementation in women's health: a lifespan perspective
Smith-Ryan, A. E., Cabre, H. E., Eckerson, J. M., & Candow, D. G. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13030877 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“The increased prevalence of depression among females has been directly linked with hormonal milestones; major depression rates increase during puberty, during the luteal (high estrogen) phase, following pregnancy, and during perimenopause [75].”
BackgroundPhysical Activity and Depressive Disorders in Pregnant Women—A Systematic Review
Kołomańska-Bogucka, D., Zarawski, M., & Mazur-Biały, A. I. (2019) · Medicina · doi:10.3390/medicina55050212 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
“Women are at risk of developing depression during adolescence, before menstruation, during pregnancy, after delivery, and at perimenopausal age [12].”
BackgroundA systematic review on automated clinical depression diagnosis
Mao, K., Wu, Y., & Chen, J. (2023) · npj Mental Health Research · doi:10.1038/s44184-023-00040-z · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Stress and coping in women with breast cancer:unravelling the mechanisms to improve resilience
Borgi, M., Collacchi, B., Ortona, E., & Cirulli, F. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.10.011 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Dietary inflammatory index (DII®) and the risk of depression symptoms in adults
Shakya, P. R., Melaku, Y. A., Shivappa, N., Hébert, J. R., Adams, R., Page, A. J., & Gill, T. K. (2020) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2020.12.031 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Watcharin, S., Sovijit, W., Pu, S., Usuda, K., Inoüe, R., Watanabe, G., Yamaguchi, H., & Nagaoka, K. (2019) · Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1016/j.neures.2019.04.005 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Lofgren, S. M., Bond, D. J., Nakasujja, N., & Boulware, D. R. (2019) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-019-02706-2 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“This difference in prevalence has been shown in other settings [94].”
ResultDepression and anxiety during the COVID‐19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia: A cross‐sectional study
Alyami, H. S., Naser, A. Y., Dahmash, E. Z., Alyami, M. H., & Alyami, M. S. (2021) · International Journal of Clinical Practice · doi:10.1111/ijcp.14244 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Dhahri, A. A., Arain, S. Y., Memon, A. M., Rao, A., Mian, M. A., Khan, M., Hafeez, G., Dhahri, M. A., Mustafa, F. G., Malhi, S., et al. (2020) · Annals of Medicine and Surgery · doi:10.1016/j.amsu.2020.11.025 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Liu, C., Pan, W., Li, L., Li, B., Ren, Y., & Ma, X. (2021) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2021.110516 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
“The prevalence of depression, anxiety, and insomnia symptoms appeared to be higher in female, which possibly reflects the already established gender gap for depression and anxiety [45,46].”
Sex differences in behavior and neuropharmacology of zebrafish
Genário, R., de Abreu, M. S., Giacomini, A. C. V. V., Demin, K. A., & Kalueff, A. V. (2019) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.14438 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Alsairafi, Z. K., Naser, A. Y., Alsaleh, F. M., Awad, A. I., & Jalal, Z. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18042203 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“This could be attributed to the increased frequency of hormonal fluctuation in women, which leads to mood changes compared to men [58,59].”
ResultBarreto, T. M., Bento, M. N., Barreto, T. M., Jagersbacher, J. G., Jones, N. S., Lucena, R., & Bandeira, I. D. (2019) · Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology · doi:10.1111/dmcn.14321 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Reviewing the Role of the Endocannabinoid System in the Pathophysiology of Depression
Gallego‐Landin, I., García-Baos, A., Castro‐Zavala, A., & Valverde, O. (2021) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2021.762738 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“These are associated with alterations in the fluctuation of ovarian hormones, which might directly or indirectly contribute to the elevated prevalence (Albert, 2015).”
BackgroundSun, Y.-Y., Wang, D.-Y., Han, Z., Gao, J., Zhu, S.-S., & Zhang, H. (2020) · Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing · doi:10.4040/jkan.20125 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“Although there are more European and American studies, female students are more likely to suffer from anxiety [25-27].”
BackgroundSex differences in the inflammation-depression link: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Jarkas, D., Villeneuve, A. H., Daneshmend, A., Villeneuve, P. J., & McQuaid, R. J. (2024) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2024.07.037 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“Thus, sex-specific factors that influence vulnerability to depression require consideration, and it is suggested that biological processes, such as sex steroid hormones (Albert, 2015) and inflammation (Derry et al., 2015; Kropp and Hodes, 2023), are involved.”
BackgroundRole of Brain-Gut-Microbiota Axis in Depression: Emerging Therapeutic Avenues
Bhatt, S., Kanoujia, J., Lakshmi, S. M., Patil, C., Gupta, G., Chellappan, D. K., & Dua, K. (2022) · CNS & Neurological Disorders - Drug Targets · doi:10.2174/1871527321666220329140804 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Evidence of sex differences in cellular senescence
Ng, M., & Hazrati, L. (2022) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2022.08.014 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“, 2015), greater likelihood of being diagnosed with depression (Albert, 2015) and greater likelihood of experiencing worse post-mTBI symptoms (Bazarian et al.”
InfluentialImpact of Stress on Menstrual Cyclicity During the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic: A Survey Study
Ozimek, N., Velez, K. M., Anvari, H., Butler, L., Goldman, K. N., & Woitowich, N. C. (2021) · Journal of Women s Health · doi:10.1089/jwh.2021.0158 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Tsui, Y. Y.-Y., & Cheng, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.722353 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Targeting inflammation: a potential approach for the treatment of depression
Bhatt, S., Devadoss, T., Jha, N. K., Baidya, M., Gupta, G., Chellappan, D. K., Singh, S. K., & Dua, K. (2022) · Metabolic Brain Disease · doi:10.1007/s11011-022-01095-1 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“There are chances to decrease in the levels of 5-HT and DA in the affected area due to degeneration of neurons (Albert 2015).”
BackgroundBordeleau, M., Carrier, M., Luheshi, G. N., & Tremblay, M.-È. (2019) · Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology · doi:10.1016/j.semcdb.2019.06.001 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Hanach, N., de Vries, N., Radwan, H., & Bissani, N. (2021) · Midwifery · doi:10.1016/j.midw.2020.102906 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Moreno-Rius, J. (2019) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2019.100774 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Rakofsky, J. J., & Rapaport, M. H. (2018) · CONTINUUM Lifelong Learning in Neurology · doi:10.1212/con.0000000000000604 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Depression screening using mobile phone usage metadata: a machine learning approach
Razavi, R., Gharipour, A., & Gharipour, M. (2019) · Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association · doi:10.1093/jamia/ocz221 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Cénat, J. M., Kogan, C. S., Noorishad, P., Hajizadeh, S., Dalexis, R. D., Ndengeyingoma, A., & Guerrier, M. (2021) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.23158 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“The significant gender difference replicates previous studies among the general population in Canada and elsewhere (Akhtar‐Danesh & Landeen, 2007; Albert, 2015; Kessler et al., 2015).”
ResultPappa, S., Sakkas, N., & Sakka, E. (2021) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2021.07.009 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“These results may be partly confounded by the fact that nurses are mostly female while also reflecting the already established gender gap for anxious and depressive symptoms [42].”
- Authors
- Albert, P. R.
- Affiliations
- University of Ottawa (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Albert, Paul R.
- ORCID
- Albert, Paul R.
- Venue
- Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Canadian Science Publishing
- Published
- 2015-07
- Volume
- 40
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 219-221
- ISSN
- 1180-4882 (ISSN-L)
- 1488-2434
- PMC
- PMC4478054
- OpenAlex
- W2418872436
- Cited by
- 1,785
- References
- 29
- Citations by year
- 2026: 149 · 2025: 255 · 2024: 224 · 2023: 233 · 2022: 256 · 2021: 271 · 2020: 188 · 2019: 115 · 2018: 58 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 7
- FWCI
- 22.57
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research (115098_1)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology › Treatment of Major Depression
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Sex and Gender in Healthcare
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Keywords
- major depressive disorder, sex differences, women, prevalence, suicide, disability burden, chronic disease
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Depressive Disorder, Female, Humans, Male, Sex Characteristics, Sex Factors, Prevalence
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