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Why We Like to Drink: A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study of the Rewarding and Anxiolytic Effects of Alcohol
Open accessAbstract
People typically drink alcohol to induce euphoria or reduce anxiety, and they frequently drink in social settings, yet the effect of alcohol on human brain circuits involved in reward and emotion has been explored only sparingly. We administered alcohol intravenously to social drinkers while brain response to visual threatening and nonthreatening facial stimuli was measured using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Alcohol robustly activated striatal reward circuits while attenuating response to fearful stimuli in visual and limbic regions. Self-ratings of intoxication correlated with striatal activation, suggesting that activation in this area may contribute to subjective experience of pleasure and reward during intoxication. These results show that the acute pharmacological rewarding and anxiolytic effects of alcohol can be measured with fMRI.
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“Neuroimaging studies show that even a single dose of alcohol disrupts the regulation of emotional stimuli by attenuating activity in the amygdala during exposure to threatening faces (Gilman et al. 2008; Sripada et al. 2011; Gorka et al. 2013).”
From Decoding the bidirectional links between alcohol misuse and aggression: toward a unified translational framework (2026) · cites this paper as Gilman et al. 2008
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“The ventral striatum (VS) is central to reward processing (Knutson and Cooper 2005), and is activated by a range of rewarding stimuli including drugs of abuse (Gilman et al. 2008).”
From Effects of MDMA on sociability and neural response to social threat and social reward (2009) · cites this paper as Gilman et al. 2008
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InfluentialSex differences in neural responses to stress and alcohol context cues
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BackgroundResultStimulant and Sedative Effects of Alcohol
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Self-citationNeuroimaging for drug addiction and related behaviors
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Epigenetic basis of the dark side of alcohol addiction
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Facets of impulsivity and alcohol use: What role do emotions play?
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“Importantly, the present study differed from Gilman et al. (2008) in a number of respects including that the present study (1) used happy faces as the 'control' for the threat condition rather than neutral faces; (2) included a more clinically-relevant subpopulation, i.e., frequent binge social…”
InfluentialFröjd, S. A., Ranta, K., Kaltiala‐Heino, R., & MARTTUNEN, M. J. (2011) · Alcohol and Alcoholism · doi:10.1093/alcalc/agq096 · Cited by 99
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Cingulate cortex functional connectivity predicts future relapse in alcohol dependent individuals
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BackgroundModeling Alcohol Self-Administration in the Human Laboratory
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“While including both genders is a common practice in MRI studies examining the effects of alcohol on the brain (Gilman et al., 2008; Eijk et al., 2013) there may be a differential effect of gender on the patient group.”
BackgroundSelf-citationExplaining the relationship between religiousness and substance use: Self-control matters.
DeWall, C. N., Pond, R. S., Carter, E. C., McCullough, M. E., Lambert, N. M., Fincham, F. D., & Nezlek, J. B. (2014) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0036853 · Cited by 68
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“…an allostatic view of the MOR system and opioidmediated reward, which is in line with published papers indicating a progressive loss of ventro-striatal-mediated alcohol reward as detected by functional magnetic resonance imaging (Gilman et al., 2008; Gilman et al., 2012; Spagnolo et al., 2014).”
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BackgroundBrain Imaging Biomarkers to Predict Relapse in Alcohol Addiction
Volkow, N. D., & Baler, R. (2013) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.1141 · Cited by 60
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“This profile resembles those of several other drugs of abuse, including alcohol (Gilman et al., 2008), benzodiazepines (Paulus et al., 2005), and +/-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ‘ecstasy’) (Bedi et al., 2009).”
BackgroundAlcohol, Cocaine, and Brain Stimulation‐Reward in C57Bl6/J and DBA2/J Mice
Fish, E. W., Riday, T. T., McGuigan, M. M., Faccidomo, S., Hodge, C. W., & Malanga, C. J. (2009) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01069.x · Cited by 51
“Importantly, the dopamine system is rapidly activated after alcohol administration (Gilman et al., 2008; Williams-Hemby and Porrino, 1997), which increases the firing of DA cell bodies in the VTA (Brodie et al., 1990; Okamoto et al., 2006; McDaid et al., 2008) and regulates of the amount of…”
Hu, S., Ide, J. S., Chao, H. H., Zhornitsky, S., Fischer, K. A., Wang, W., Zhang, S., & Li, C.-S. R. (2018) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.11.026 · Cited by 50
“For example, participants with acute alcohol administration showed reduced right amygdala (Gilman et al., 2008) or bilateral amygdala activation (Sripada et al.”
BackgroundNeuroplasticity and Predictors of Alcohol Recovery
Seo, D. (2015) · Alcohol research · doi:10.35946/arcr.v37.1.10 · Cited by 49
“…to negative emotional stimuli (Gilman et al. 2008; Sripada et al. 2011), enhanced striatal response to rewarding stimuli (Filbey et al. 2008; Gilman et al. 2008; Seo et al. 2011) and to risky decisionmaking (Gilman et al. 2012), and impaired episodic memory functioning (Soderlund et al.…”
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“As blood alcohol levels rise, neurons of the ventral tegmental area (VTA) in the midbrain are activated and release dopamine into numerous target areas including the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and prefrontal cortex (Carboni et al. 2000; Engleman et al. 2000; Weiss & Porrino 2002; Gilman et al. 2008; Ding et al. 2009; How…”
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Reward, Relief and Habit Drinking: Initial Validation of a Brief Assessment Tool
Grodin, E. N., Bujarski, S., Venegas, A., Baskerville, W., Nieto, S. J., Jentsch, D., & Ray, L. A. (2019) · Alcohol and Alcoholism · doi:10.1093/alcalc/agz075 · Cited by 48
“These initial features are mediated by both the dopaminergic and opioidergic activity within the ventral striatum (Volkow et al., 2003; Gilman et al., 2008; Mitchell et al., 2012).”
BackgroundOlson-Madden, J. H., Brenner, L. A., Corrigan, J. D., Emrick, C. D., & Britton, P. C. (2012) · Rehabilitation Research and Practice · doi:10.1155/2012/174579 · Cited by 45
“Work by Gilman and colleagues [29] shows that after consuming alcohol, social drinkers have decreased sensitivity in brain regions involved in detecting threats and increased activity in brain regions involved in reward [29].”
BackgroundAcute calming effects of alcohol are associated with disruption of the salience network
Gorka, S. M., Phan, K. L., & Childs, E. (2017) · Addiction Biology · doi:10.1111/adb.12537 · Cited by 44
“2013) and insula reactivity (Gilman et al. 2008; Padula et al. 2011) while participants view threatening faces.”
BackgroundExplaining the association between anxiety disorders and alcohol use disorder: A twin study
Torvik, F. A., Rosenström, T. H., Gustavson, K., Ystrøm, E., Kendler, K. S., Bramness, J. G., Czajkowski, N. O., & Reichborn‐Kjennerud, T. (2019) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22886 · Cited by 48
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“08% also affected limbic activation to emotional faces (Gilman et al., 2008) and to alcoholic drink odors at |0.”
InfluentialEffects of Alcohol on the Brain in Cirrhosis: Beyond Hepatic Encephalopathy
Davis, B., & Bajaj, J. S. (2018) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.13605 · Cited by 44
Crane, N. A., Gorka, S., Phan, K., & Childs, E. (2018) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.07.044 · Cited by 39
“Previous studies with acute alcohol administration show that alcohol specifically targets the amygdala and amygdala-OFC connectivity (Gilman et al., 2012; Gilman et al., 2008; Sripada et al., 2011; also see Bjork and Gilman, 2014; Gorka et al., 2013), and chronic alcohol use is associated with degeneration of frontal…”
BackgroundThe µ-Opioid Receptor and Treatment Response to Naltrexone
Thorsell, A. (2013) · Alcohol and Alcoholism · doi:10.1093/alcalc/agt030 · Cited by 43
“It has been demonstrated in experimental animal models as well as in humans that alcohol induces mesolimbic dopamine release (Di Chiara and Imperato, 1988a,b; Weiss et al., 1993; Boileau et al., 2003; Gilman et al., 2008).”
BackgroundThe Need for Treatment Responsive Translational Biomarkers in Alcoholism Research
Heilig, M. A., Sommer, W. H., & Spanagel, R. (2015) · Current topics in behavioral neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2015_5006 · Cited by 45
Positive Emotion Regulation and Psychopathology: A Transdiagnostic Cultural Neuroscience Approach
Hechtman, L. A., Raila, H., Chiao, J. Y., & Gruber, J. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Psychopathology · doi:10.5127/jep.030412 · Cited by 46
Midbrain-Driven Emotion and Reward Processing in Alcoholism
Müller-Oehring, E. M., Jung, Y.-C., Sullivan, E. V., Hawkes, W. C., Pfefferbaum, A., & Schulte, T. (2013) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2013.102 · Cited by 38
Animated bird silhouette above the tank: Acute alcohol diminishes fear responses in zebrafish
Luca, R. M., & Gerlai, R. T. (2012) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2012.01.021 · Cited by 40
“Acute alcohol exposure has been found to reduce anxiety (a behavioral state that is not directly induced by stimuli) and is also known to impair the behavioral responses to fear inducing stimuli [5, 10, 22].”
BackgroundAlcohol�s Negative Emotional Side: The Role of Stress Neurobiology in Alcohol Use Disorder
Sinha, R. (2022) · Alcohol Research: Current Reviews · doi:10.35946/arcr.v42.1.12 · Cited by 39
“The emotion/ stress pathway and the reward/motivation pathways closely interact, and such interactions are involved in emotional cuerelated drinking motivation.(11,12)”
BackgroundDose-dependent effects of intravenous alcohol administration on cerebral blood flow in young adults
Strang, N. M., Claus, E. D., Ramchandani, V. A., Graff‐Guerrero, A., Boileau, I., & Hendershot, C. S. (2014) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-014-3706-z · Cited by 39
“As in prior studies (e.g., Gilman et al. 2008; 2012), participants underwent an initial alcohol clamp session outside of the scanner.”
Self-citationFailure to consider future consequences increases the effects of alcohol on aggression
Bushman, B. J., Giancola, P. R., Parrott, D. J., & Roth, R. M. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2011.11.013 · Cited by 39
Kenna, G. A., Swift, R. M., Hillemacher, T., & Leggio, L. (2012) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-012-9209-y · Cited by 38
“Alcohol has anxiolytic properties, for example reducing visual and limbic system MRI bold responses to fearful faces (Gilman et al. 2008); however, rapid tolerance also develops to alcohol’s anxiolytic effect (Sakharkar et al. 2011).”
The effect of alcohol priming on neural markers of alcohol cue-reactivity
Courtney, K. E., Ghahremani, D. G., & Ray, L. A. (2015) · The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse · doi:10.3109/00952990.2015.1044608 · Cited by 41
“Inclusion criteria were: (1) ages 21–55 years, (2) current DSM-IV alcohol dependence, (3) no major psychiatric disorders, (4) no current use of illicit substances (other than marijuana), verified by toxicology screening, and (5) no DSM-IV abuse or dependence on any illicit substance (including marijuana) in the past 1…”
BackgroundBen‐Azu, B., Moke, E. G., Chris-Ozoko, L. E., Jaiyeoba-Ojigho, E. J., Adebayo, O. G., Ajayi, A. M., Oyovwi, M. O., Odjugo, G., Omozojie, V. I., Ejomafuwe, G., et al. (2024) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-023-06509-1 · Cited by 39
“Noteworthy is that alcohol induces a euphoric state, relaxation of the mind, and alleviation of stress-and anxiety-like conditions (Gilman et al. 2008).”
Stimulant and motivational effects of alcohol: Lessons from rodent and primate models
Brabant, C., Guarnieri, D. J., & Quertemont, É. (2014) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2014.03.006 · Cited by 42
“Neuroimaging studies have shown that oral or i.v. alcohol administration can activate the ventral striatum in humans (Boileau et al., 2003; Gilman et al., 2008; Ramchandani et al., 2011; Urban et al., 2010).”
BackgroundFroehlich, J. C., Hausauer, B. J., & Rasmussen, D. D. (2013) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.12148 · Cited by 38
“One of the strongest positively reinforcing effects of alcohol is induction of euphoria (“high”) and feelings of well being (Gilman et al., 2008).”
BackgroundPadula, C. B., Simmons, A. N., Matthews, S. C., Robinson, S. K., Tapert, S. F., Schuckit, M. A., & Paulus, M. P. (2011) · Alcohol and Alcoholism · doi:10.1093/alcalc/agr066 · Cited by 41
Molecular Arrangement and Surface Tension of Alcohol Solutions
Phan, C. M., Nguyen, C. V., & Pham, T. T. T. (2016) · The Journal of Physical Chemistry B · doi:10.1021/acs.jpcb.6b01209 · Cited by 38
Al‐Khalil, K., Vakamudi, K., Witkiewitz, K. A., & Claus, E. D. (2021) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.14614 · Cited by 41
Ben‐Azu, B., Oritsemuelebi, B., Oghorodi, A. M., Adebesin, A., Isibor, H., Eduviere, A. T., Otuacha, S. O., Akudo, M., Ekereya, S., Maidoh, I. F., et al. (2024) · European Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2024.176791 · Cited by 37
Family history of alcoholism and the human brain response to oral sucrose
Eiler, W. J. A., Džemidžić, M., Soeurt, C. M., Carron, C. R., Oberlin, B. G., Considine, R. V., Harezlak, J., & Kareken, D. A. (2017) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2017.12.019 · Cited by 39
“This is echoed in a series of studies in which fearful faces produced blunted amygdala activation following exposure to alcohol (Gilman et al., 2008; Gowin et al., 2016).”
BackgroundTo Infuse or Ingest in Human Laboratory Alcohol Research
Cyders, M. A., Plawecki, M. H., Corbin, W. R., King, A. C., McCarthy, D. M., Ramchandani, V. A., Weafer, J. J., & O’Connor, S. (2020) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.14305 · Cited by 36
Self-citationLimbic responses to reward cues correlate with antisocial trait density in heavy drinkers
Oberlin, B. G., Dzemidzic, M., Bragulat, V., Lehigh, C. A., Talavage, T., O'Connor, S. J., & Kareken, D. A. (2012) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.12.043 · Cited by 35
“Scans done under alcohol and placebo were analyzed separately, given alcoholinduced differences in activation observed in this sample and other studies (Gilman et al., 2008; Kareken et al., 2010a).”
Gorka, S. M., Teppen, T. L., Radoman, M., Phan, K. L., & Pandey, S. C. (2019) · The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1093/ijnp/pyz057 · Cited by 34
Alcoholism gender differences in brain responsivity to emotional stimuli
Sawyer, K. S., Maleki, N., Urban, T., Marinković, K., Karson, S., Ruiz, S. M., Harris, G. J., & Oscar‐Berman, M. (2019) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.41723 · Cited by 32
Acute effects of alcohol on social and personal decision making
Karlsson, H., Persson, E., Perini, I., Yngve, A., Heilig, M. A., & Tinghög, G. (2021) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-021-01218-9 · Cited by 36
Neural Substrates of Alcohol-Induced Smoking Urge in Heavy Drinking Nondaily Smokers
King, A. C., McNamara, P., Angstadt, M., & Phan, K. L. (2009) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2009.177 · Cited by 35
“…et al, 2005, 2008a, b; Wilson et al, 2005; McBride et al, 2006; Franklin et al, 2007) and alcohol challenge fMRI studies (Bragulat et al, 2008; Gilman et al, 2008) and for subsequent generation of new hypotheses, we report activation results in other brain regions other than the vSTR that…”
Doss, M. K., de Wit, H., & Gallo, D. A. (2022) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105188 · Cited by 37
Spagnolo, P. A., Ramchandani, V. A., Schwandt, M. L., Zhang, L., Blaine, S. K., Usala, J. M., Diamond, K. A., Phillips, M. J., George, D. T., Momenan, R., et al. (2014) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.12581 · Cited by 33
“%) in 15 min and maintain that concentration for 20 min (for further details see Gilman et al. 2008).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationSuchankova, P., Yan, J., Schwandt, M. L., Stangl, B. L., Jerlhag, E., Engel, J. A., Hodgkinson, C. A., Ramchandani, V. A., & Leggio, L. (2017) · Alcohol and Alcoholism · doi:10.1093/alcalc/agx021 · Cited by 32
“Specifically, this modified DEQ consisted of five items scored by the subject using a 100 mm visual analog scale: feel drug, like drug, like more drug, feel high and feel intoxicated.”
MethodInfluentialSelf-citationVatsalya, V., Stangl, B. L., Schmidt, V. Y., & Ramchandani, V. A. (2016) · Addiction Biology · doi:10.1111/adb.12469 · Cited by 31
“Studies using the alcohol clamp that provides a steady-state BrAC exposure profile following IV alcohol (Ramchandani et al., 1999a) have been used in studies by Gilman et al., 2008, Ramchandani et al., 2011, Wetherill et al., 2012, Kerfoot et al., 2013, Vatsalya et al., 2014, to name a few.”
MethodSelf-citationSubstance use disorders: a theory‐driven approach to the integration of genetics and neuroimaging
Karoly, H. C., Harlaar, N., & Hutchison, K. E. (2013) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.12074 · Cited by 32
Acute effects of alcohol on resting-state functional connectivity in healthy young men
Han, J., Keedy, S., Murray, C. H., Foxley, S., & de Wit, H. (2020) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106786 · Cited by 28
“For example, alcohol increased ventral striatum activity during processing of emotional faces in one study (Gilman et al., 2008), but not another (Padula et al.”
BackgroundAlcohol exacerbates psychosocial stress-induced neuropsychiatric symptoms: Attenuation by geraniol
Ben‐Azu, B., Adebesin, A., Moke, G. E., Ojiokor, V. O., Adebayo, O. G., Jarikre, T. A., Akinluyi, E. T., Olukemi, O. A., Omeiza, N. A., Nkenchor, P., et al. (2024) · Neurochemistry International · doi:10.1016/j.neuint.2024.105748 · Cited by 28
Mitchell, I., Gillespie, S. M., & Abu-Akel, A. M. (2015) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.04.018 · Cited by 27
Ballard, M. E., Gallo, D. A., & de Wit, H. (2013) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-012-2924-5 · Cited by 32
“…preencoding administration of several drugs that dampen amygdalar reactivity to emotional images, including both addictive drugs (e.g., alcohol (Gilman et al. 2008; Knowles and Duka 2004), benzodiazepines (Buchanan et al. 2003; Del-Ben et al. 2010; Kamboj and Curran 2006; Paulus et al. 2005))…”
BackgroundInfluentialAcute alcohol administration dampens central extended amygdala reactivity
Hur, J., Kaplan, C. M., Smith, J. F., Bradford, D. E., Fox, A. S., Curtin, J. J., & Shackman, A. J. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-34987-3 · Cited by 26
Abdallah, M., Zahr, N. M., Saranathan, M., Honnorat, N., Farrugia, N., Adolf Pfefferbaum, A., Sullivan, E. V., & Chanraud, S. (2021) · The Cerebellum · doi:10.1007/s12311-021-01241-y · Cited by 27
Pérez‐Ramírez, Ú., López‐Madrona, V. J., Pérez-Segura, A., Pallarés, V., Moreno, A., Ciccocioppo, R., Hyytiä, P., Sommer, W. H., Moratal, D., & Canals, S. (2022) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0389-21.2022 · Cited by 27
Metadata
- Authors
- Gilman, J. M., Ramchandani, V. A., Davis, M. B., Bjork, J. M., & Hommer, D. W.
- Affiliations
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Venue
- The Journal of Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Society for Neuroscience
- Published
- 2008-04-30
- Volume
- 28
- Issue
- 18
- Pages
- 4583-4591
- ISSN
- 0270-6474 (ISSN-L)
- 1529-2401
- PMC
- PMC2730732
- OpenAlex
- W2135192074
- Cited by
- 267
- References
- 62
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 18 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 6.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (Z99‐AA999999)
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Keywords
- alcohol, reward, anxiolytic effects, striatum, fear response, facial expressions, social drinkers, poisoning, limbic system, acute alcohol effects
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Alcoholic Intoxication, Alcohols, Analysis of Variance, Brain Mapping, Facial Expression, Female, Humans, Image Processing, Computer-Assisted, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Oxygen, Photic Stimulation, Surveys and Questionnaires, Reward, Anti-Anxiety Agents, Linear Models
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