Functional anatomy of human procedural learning determined with regional cerebral blood flow and PET
Open accessAbstract
The functional anatomy of motor skill acquisition was investigated in six normal human subjects who learned to perform a pursuit rotor task with their dominant right hand during serial positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of relative cerebral blood flow (relCBF). The effect of motor execution, rather than learning, was identified by a comparison of four motor performance scans with two control scans (eye movements only). Motor execution was associated with activation of a distributed network involving cortical, striatonigral, and cerebellar sites. Second, the effect of early motor learning was examined. Performance improved from 17% to 66% mean time on target across the four PET scans obtained during pursuit rotor performance. Across the same scans, significant longitudinal increases of relCBF were located in the left primary motor cortex, the left supplementary motor area, and the left pulvinar thalamus. The results demonstrate that changes of regional cerebral activity associated with early learning of skilled movements occur in sites that are a subset of a more widely distributed network that is active during motor execution.
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The putamen is often implicated in procedural learning.
“The putamen is often implicated in procedural learning (Grafton et al., 1992; Miyachi et al., 1997, 2002; Jueptner and Weiller, 1998; Turner et al., 2003).”
From Neural Correlates of Long-Term Memory Enhancement Following Retrieval Practice (2021) · cites this paper as Grafton et al., 1992
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“Examples include studies that have demonstrated correlations between regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) and the performance of motor tracking tasks in the supplementary motor area and thalamus (Grafton et al., 1992).”
BackgroundImaging Brain Plasticity: Conceptual and Methodological Issues— A Theoretical Review
Poldrack, R. A. (2000) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2000.0596 · Cited by 409 · see citing works
Functional neuroimaging correlates of finger-tapping task variations: An ALE meta-analysis
Witt, S. T., Laird, A. R., & Meyerand, M. E. (2008) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.04.025 · Cited by 406 · see citing works
“Further studies have demonstrated the role of the PPC in the integration of both auditory and visual cues into movement selection and execution (Deiber et al., 1991; Grafton et al., 1992b; Jenkins et al., 1994a).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMechanisms of Deafferentation-Induced Plasticity in Human Motor Cortex
Ziemann, U., Hallett, M., & Cohen, L. G. (1998) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.18-17-07000.1998 · Cited by 406 · see citing works
“, 1998) or as a consequence of motor learning (Grafton et al., 1992; Recanzone et al., 1992; Pascual-Leone et al., 1994, 1995; Karni et al., 1995; Donoghue et al., 1996; Nudo et al., 1996).”
BackgroundRegional homogeneity changes in patients with Parkinson's disease
Wu, T., Long, X., Zang, Y., Wang, L. Y., Hallett, M., Li, K., & Chan, P. (2008) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20622 · Cited by 396 · see citing works
“Hot and cold colors indicate positive and negative correlations between ReHo and UPDRS, respectively. r 1507 r motor sequences from memory that fit into a precise plan [Grafton et al., 1992; Shibasaki et al., 1993].”
BackgroundThe functional neuroanatomy of simple and complex sequential finger movements: a PET study
Catalán, M. J. (1998) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/121.2.253 · Cited by 395 · see citing works
“Another report (Grafton et al., 1992) supports the involvement of the posterior SMA in the complexity of voluntary movements.”
BackgroundInfluentialLeiguarda, R. C., & MARSDEN, C. D. (2000) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/123.5.860 · Cited by 379 · see citing works
Role of the Premotor Cortex in Recovery From Middle Cerebral Artery Infarction
Seitz, R. J., Höflich, P., Binkofski, F., Tellmann, L., Herzog, H. R., & Freund, H. (1998) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneur.55.8.1081 · Cited by 379 · see citing works
Korman, M., Raz, N., Flash, T., & Karni, A. (2003) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2035019100 · Cited by 378 · see citing works
Dynamic cortical involvement in implicit and explicit motor sequence learning. A PET study
Honda, M. (1998) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/121.11.2159 · Cited by 370 · see citing works
“In addition, the cortical areas showing the most marked findings in the present study, as well as in the studies of Grafton et al. (1995) and Hazeltinet al. (1997), i.e the SM1, SMA, dorsal premotor cortex and, presumably, a part of the posterior parietal cortex, were not covered by the PET scan in the study of Rauche…”
ResultInfluentialSadato, N., Yonekura, Y., Waki, A., Yamada, H., & Ishii, Y. (1997) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.17-24-09667.1997 · Cited by 361 · see citing works
“…of the SMA is associated with the initiation of movement , motor programming (Roland et al., 1980), motor planning (Orgogozo and Larsen, 1979; Grafton et al., 1992; Rao et al., 1993), readiness to move (Fox et al., 1985), motor learning (Roland et al., 1989; Seitz et al., 1990; Grafton et…”
InfluentialBrain Regions Responsive to Novelty in the Absence of Awareness
Berns, G. S., Cohen, J. D., & Mintun, M. A. (1997) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.276.5316.1272 · Cited by 361 · see citing works
Changing Brain Networks for Visuomotor Control With Increased Movement Automaticity
Floyer-Lea, A., & Matthews, P. M. (2004) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.01092.2003 · Cited by 349 · see citing works
Neural networks for Braille reading by the blind
Sadato, N. (1998) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/121.7.1213 · Cited by 352 · see citing works
Mapping the network for planning: a correlational PET activation study with the Tower of London task
Dagher, A., Owen, A. M., Boecker, H., & Brooks, D. J. (1999) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/122.10.1973 · Cited by 345 · see citing works
“PET studies have demonstrated activation of areas within the dorsal stream during a variety of visuomotor tasks: tracking a moving target (Grafton et al., 1992); pointing (Grafton et al., 1996); preparation for reaching (Kawashima et al., 1995); mental rotation of the hand (Bonda et al., 1995) or…”
BackgroundPatterns of regional brain activation associated with different forms of motor learning
Ghilardi, M. F., Ghez, C. P., DHAWAN, V. M., Moeller, J. R., Mentis, M. J., Nakamura, T., Antonini, A., & Eidelberg, D. (2000) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/s0006-8993(00)02365-9 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
Abstract and Effector-Specific Representations of Motor Sequences Identified with PET
Grafton, S. T., Hazeltine, E., & Ivry, R. B. (1998) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.18-22-09420.1998 · Cited by 327 · see citing works
“As in previous experiments, we observed a progressive increase of activity in motor cortex as subjects acquired a new movement pattern (Grafton et al., 1992, 1994, 1995; Karni et al., 1995; Doyon et al., 1996; Hazeltine et al., 1997).”
BackgroundResultAntal, A., Nitsche, M. A., Kincses, T., Kruse, W., Hoffmann, K., & Paulus, W. (2004) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2004.03367.x · Cited by 357 · see citing works
Neural correlates of self-induced dysphoria
Pardo, J. V., Pardo, P. J., & Raichle, M. E. (1993) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.150.5.713 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
The role of the supplementary motor area for speech and language processing
Hertrich, I., Dietrich, S., & Ackermann, H. (2016) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.06.030 · Cited by 298 · see citing works
Time‐dependent changes in effective connectivity measured with PET
Friston, K. J., Frith, C., & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1993) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.460010108 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Eye fields in the frontal lobes of primates
Tehovnik, E. J., Sommer, M. A., Chou, I.-H., Slocum, W. M., & Schiller, P. H. (2000) · Brain Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/s0165-0173(99)00092-2 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Functional coupling of human cortical sensorimotor areas during bimanual skill acquisition
Andres, F. G., Mima, T., Schulman, A. E., DICHGANS, J., Hallett, M., & Gerloff, C. P. (1999) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/122.5.855 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
“Modulation of primary sensorimotor cortex activity has previously been shown in various studies, in the performance of bimanual sequences (Sadatoet al., 1997) and in the performance and learning of unimanual sequences in PET (Seitzt al., 1990; Grafton et al., 1992; Jenkinset al., 1994; Schlauget al., Downloaded from h…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialModulation of motor cortical outputs to the reading hand of braille readers
Pascual‐Leone, Á., Cammarota, Á., Wassermann, E. M., Brasil-Neto, J. P., Cohen, L. G., & Hallett, M. (1993) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.410340108 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
How self-initiated memorized movements become automatic: A functional MRI study
Wu, T., Kansaku, K., & Hallett, M. (2004) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.01052.2003 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
“The premotor cortex is important in the temporal organization of sequential movements (Halsband et al. 1990, 1993), selection of movements (Deiber et al. 1991), and in the generation of motor sequences from memory that fit into a precise plan (Grafton et al. 1992; Shibasaki et al. 1993).”
BackgroundMartin, R. E., MacIntosh, B. J., Smith, R. C., Barr, A. M., Stevens, T. K., Gati, J. S., & Menon, R. S. (2004) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.01144.2003 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
Thach, W. T. (1996) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00081504 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
The Brain That Plays Music and Is Changed by It
Pascual‐Leone, Á. (2001) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb05741.x · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Commentary and Opinion: II. Statistical Parametric Mapping: Ontology and Current Issues
Friston, K. J. (1995) · Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism · doi:10.1038/jcbfm.1995.45 · Cited by 268 · see citing works
Functionally Specific Changes in Resting-State Sensorimotor Networks after Motor Learning
Vahdat, S., Darainy, M., Milner, T. E., & Ostry, D. J. (2011) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2737-11.2011 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
“These regions include contralateral primary motor cortex (M1) (Grafton et al., 1992; Steele and Penhune, 2010), dorsal premotor cortex (PMd) (Shadmehr and Holcomb, 1997), supplementary motor area (SMA) (Padoa-Schioppa et al.”
Hund‐Georgiadis, M., & von Cramon, D. Y. (1999) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s002210050698 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
“Previous PET-studies have focused on the nature and the extent of brain reorganization in response to motor learning based on different task types (Seitz et al. 1990; Grafton et al. 1992; Friston et al. 1992; Jenkins et al. 1994; Schlaug et al. 1994).”
BackgroundResultBrain correlates of stuttering and syllable production: A PET performance-correlation analysis
Fox, P. T. (2000) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/123.10.1985 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Hikosaka, O., Sakai, K., Miyauchi, S., Takino, R., Sasaki, Y., & Pütz, B. (1996) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1996.76.1.617 · Cited by 263 · see citing works
Neuronal Activity in Medial Frontal Cortex During Learning of Sequential Procedures
Nakamura, K., Sakai, K., & Hikosaka, O. (1998) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1998.80.5.2671 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
“Functional imaging studies on human subjects also suggest that the SMA is a storage site of movement skill (Grafton et al. 1992, 1994, 1995; van Mier and Petersen 1996) or sequence (Jenkins et al. 1994; Seitz and Roland 1992).”
BackgroundDoyon, J., Owen, A. M., Petrides, M., Sziklas, V., & Evans, A. C. (1996) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.1996.tb01249.x · Cited by 326 · see citing works
On climbing fiber signals and their consequence(s)
Simpson, J. I., WYLIE, D. R. W., & Zeeuw, C. I. D. (1996) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00081486 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Serial reaction time learning and Parkinson's disease: Evidence for a procedural learning deficit
Jackson, G. M., Jackson, S. R., Harrison, J., Henderson, L., & Christopher Kennard, C. (1995) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(95)00010-z · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Changes in brain activation during the acquisition of a new bimanual coordination task
Debaere, F., Wenderoth, N., Sunaert, S. G., Hecke, P. V., & Swinnen, S. P. (2004) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2003.12.010 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
“... al., 1996; Honda et al., 1998; Jenkins, Brooks, Nixon, Frackowiak, & Passingham, 1994; Jueptner, Frith, Brooks, Frackowiak, & Passingham, 1997; Jueptner, Stephan, Frith, Brooks, & Frackowiak, 1997; Karni et al., 1995; Sakai et al., 1998, 1999; Seitz & Roland, 1992; Toni & Passingham, 1999; Toni, Krams, Turner, & P…”
BackgroundA PET investigation of implicit and explicit sequence learning
Rauch, S. L., Savage, C. R., Brown, H. D., Curran, T., Alpert, N. M., Kendrick, A., Fischman, A. J., & Kosslyn, S. M. (1995) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.460030403 · Cited by 237 · see citing works
Cognitive and behavioral heterogeneity in Alzheimer's disease: seeking the neurobiological basis
Cummings, J. L. (2000) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/s0197-4580(00)00183-4 · Cited by 238 · see citing works
“[148] Grafton ST, Mazziotta JC, Presty S, Friston KJ, Frackowiak RSJ, Phelps ME.”
BackgroundNeurocognitive Contributions to Motor Skill Learning: The Role of Working Memory
Seidler, R. D., Bo, J., & Anguera, J. A. (2012) · Journal of Motor Behavior · doi:10.1080/00222895.2012.672348 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
“Early neuroscience experiments of human skill learning focused predominantly on motor cortical plasticity (Grafton et al., 1992; Karni et al., 1995).”
An fMRI study of the human cortical motor system response to increasing functional demands
Wexler, B. E., Fulbright, R. K., Lacadie, C., Skudlarski, P., Kelz, M. B., Constable, R. T., & Gore, J. C. (1997) · Magnetic Resonance Imaging · doi:10.1016/s0730-725x(96)00232-9 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Zilles, K., Gottfried Schlaug, A., Matelli, M., Luppino, G., Schleicher, A., Qü, M., Dabringhaus, A., Seitz, R. J., & Roland, P. E. (1995) · PubMed · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Gabrieli, J. D. E., Corkin, S., Mickel, S. F., & Growdon, J. H. (1993) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037//0735-7044.107.6.899 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
“A recent positron emission tomography study is relevant because it examined which neural brain regions were activated, as measured by increased relative cerebral blood flow, when normal subjects performed rotary pursuit across a number of trials ( Grafton, Mazziotta, Presty, Friston, Frackowiak, & Phelps, 1992 ).”
BackgroundFrequency-Dependent Changes of Regional Cerebral Blood Flow during Finger Movements
Sadato, N., Ibañez, V., Deiber, M., Campbell, G., Leonardo, M., & Hallett, M. (1996) · Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism · doi:10.1097/00004647-199601000-00003 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Boecker, H., Dagher, A., Ceballos-Baumann, A., Passingham, R. E., Samuel, M., Friston, K. J., Poline, J.-B., Dettmers, C., Conrad, B., & Brooks, D. J. (1998) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1998.79.2.1070 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
“This difference between suggesting that the basal ganglia do not primarily mediate motor procedural learning (Grafton et al. 1992a; Jenkins etour findings and those of Shibasaki et al. may in part be attributed to variations in the task design (self-paced task, al.”
BackgroundThe neural basis of visual skill learning: an fMRI study of mirror reading
Poldrack, R. (1998) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/8.1.1 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
“Learning-related increases in activity have been observed also in the supplementary motor area (Grafton et al., 1992, 1994, 1995; Hazeltine et al., 1997) and basal ganglia (Seitz et al., 1990; Seitz and Roland, 1992; Grafton et al., 1995; Hazeltine et al., 1997).”
BackgroundEffective connectivity of brain networks during self-initiated movement in Parkinson's disease
Wu, T., Wang, L. Y., Hallett, M., Chen, Y., Li, K., & Chan, P. (2010) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.11.074 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
“The parietal cortex plays a role in selecting and monitoring a motor sequence (Deiber et al., 1991; Grafton et al., 1992), and involves the temporal aspects of motor sequence to ensure that each movement occurs after successfully completing the preceding move and in predicting the time required to…”
BackgroundInfluentialReductions in neural activity underlie behavioral components of repetition priming
Wig, G. S., Grafton, S. T., Demos, K. E., & Kelley, W. M. (2005) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn1515 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Mier, H. I. V., Tempel, L. W., Perlmutter, J. S., Raichle, M. E., & Petersen, S. E. (1998) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1998.80.4.2177 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Transcranial magnetic stimulation and neuroplasticity
Pascual‐Leone, Á., Tarazona, F., Keenan, J. P., Tormos, J. M., Hamilton, R. H., & Catalá, M. D. (1998) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(98)00095-5 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
- Authors
- Grafton, S., Mazziotta, J., Presty, S., Friston, K., Frackowiak, R., & Phelps, M.
- Venue
- The Journal of Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Society for Neuroscience
- Published
- 1992-07-01
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 2542-2548
- ISSN
- 0270-6474 (ISSN-L)
- 1529-2401
- PMC
- PMC6575851
- OpenAlex
- W2124365503
- Cited by
- 607
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2025: 3 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 16.19
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Energy (FC03-87ER60615)
- National Institutes of Health (5r01mh037916-10)
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01 MH 37916)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Motor Control and Adaptation
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Neurology › Neurological disorders and treatments
- Keywords
- procedural learning, motor skill learning, pursuit rotor task, relative cerebral blood flow, primary motor cortex, supplementary motor area, cerebellum, motor execution
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Brain, Brain Mapping, Cerebrovascular Circulation, Eye Movements, Female, Humans, Functional Laterality, Learning, Male, Motor Activity, Movement, Organ Specificity, Regional Blood Flow, Tomography, Emission-Computed
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