Functional imaging of procedural motor learning: Relating cerebral blood flow with individual subject performance
Abstract
Changes of local synaptic activity during acquisition of a visuomotor skill were examined with positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF). Eight subject learned the pursuit rotor task, a predictable tracking task, during three sequential PET scans (day 1). Subjects returned 2 days later and repeated the three pursuit trials and PET scans (day 2) after completing an extensive practice session. Control scans without movement bracketed the pursuit trials on both days to rule out time effects unrelated to motor skill learning. PET images were transformed to a common stereotaxic space using matched magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. Group learning effects were determined by a repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance (ANOVA). During motor skill acquisition (day 1), increases of synaptic activity were identified in cortical motor areas and cerebellum, supporting the hypothesis that procedural motor learning occurs in motor execution areas. During long‐term practice (day 2), changes were limited to the bilateral putamen, bilateral parietal cortex, and left premotor cortex. To characterize differences in the rate of learning between subjects, each subject's performance data from day 1 was fit with a power function. The exponents were correlated with rCBF data on a pixel‐by‐pixel basis. Rapid skill acquisition was associated with increasing rCBF in premotor, prefrontal, and cingulate areas, and decreasing rCBF in visual processing areas located in the temporal and occipital cortex. This pattern in fast learners may reflect a more rapid shift from a visually guided strategy (accessing perceptual areas) to an internally generated model (accessing premotor and prefrontal areas). © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Cognitive Skills and Their Acquisition
Anderson, J. R. (2013) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203728178 · Cited by 2,926 · see citing works
A three-dimensional statistical analysis for CBF activation studies in human brain
Worsley, K. J., Evans, A. C., Marrett, S., & Neelin, P. (1992) · Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism · doi:10.1038/jcbfm.1992.127 · Cited by 2,036 · see citing works
Rapid Automated Algorithm for Aligning and Reslicing PET Images
Woods, R. P., Cherry, S. R., & Mazziotta, J. C. (1992) · Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography · doi:10.1097/00004728-199207000-00024 · Cited by 1,932 · see citing works
Self-citationMRI-PET Registration with Automated Algorithm
Woods, R. P., Mazziotta, J. C., & Cherry, A. S. R. (1993) · Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography · doi:10.1097/00004728-199307000-00004 · Cited by 1,636 · see citing works
Self-citationComparing Functional (PET) Images: The Assessment of Significant Change
Friston, K. J., Frith, C., Liddle, P. F., & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1991) · Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism · doi:10.1038/jcbfm.1991.122 · Cited by 1,626 · see citing works
Squire, L. R. (1986) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.3086978 · Cited by 1,278 · see citing works
Watson, J. D. G., Myers, R., Frackowiak, R. S. J., Hajnal, J. V., Woods, R. P., Mazziotta, J. C., Shipp, S. D., & Zeki, S. (1993) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/3.2.79 · Cited by 1,235 · see citing works
Self-citationNeurobiology of learning and memory
Delacour, J. (1985) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(85)90073-9 · Cited by 1,025 · see citing works
Brain blood flow measured with intravenous H2(15)O. II. Implementation and validation.
Raichle, M. E., Martin, W. R. W., Herscovitch, P., Mintun, M. A., & Markham, J. (1983) · PubMed · Cited by 1,015 · see citing works
Reshaping the Cortical Motor Map by Unmasking Latent Intracortical Connections
Jacobs, K. M., & Donoghue, J. P. (1991) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.2000496 · Cited by 1,014 · see citing works
Petrides, M., Alivisatos, B., Meyer, E., & Evans, A. C. (1993) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.90.3.878 · Cited by 897 · see citing works
Cortical areas and the selection of movement: a study with positron emission tomography
Deiber, M., Passingham, R. E., Colebatch, J. G., Friston, K. J., Nixon, P. D., & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1991) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/bf00231461 · Cited by 895 · see citing works
Activation of the hippocampus in normal humans: a functional anatomical study of memory.
Squire, L. R., Ojemann, J. G., Miezin, F. M., Petersen, S. E., Videen, T. O., & Raichle, M. E. (1992) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.89.5.1837 · Cited by 844 · see citing works
Brain blood flow measured with intravenous H2(15)O. I. Theory and error analysis.
Herscovitch, P., Markham, J., & Raichle, M. E. (1983) · PubMed · Cited by 835 · see citing works
Adams, J. A. (1987) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.101.1.41 · Cited by 771 · see citing works
Petrides, M., Alivisatos, B., Evans, A. C., & Meyer, E. (1993) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.90.3.873 · Cited by 660 · see citing works
Purkinje cell activity during motor learning
Gilbert, P. F. C., & Thach, W. T. (1977) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0006-8993(77)90997-0 · Cited by 657 · see citing works
Reliability and validity of some handedness questionnaire items
Raczkowski, D., Kalat, J. W., & Nebes, R. D. (1974) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(74)90025-6 · Cited by 611 · see citing works
Functional anatomy of human procedural learning determined with regional cerebral blood flow and PET
Grafton, S., Mazziotta, J., Presty, S., Friston, K., Frackowiak, R., & Phelps, M. (1992) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.12-07-02542.1992 · Cited by 607 · see citing works
Self-citationA Stereotactic Method of Anatomical Localization for Positron Emission Tomography
Fox, P. T., Perlmutter, J. S., & Raichle, M. E. (1985) · Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography · doi:10.1097/00004728-198501000-00025 · Cited by 576 · see citing works
Luppino, G., Matelli, M., Camarda, R., D, V. G. M., & Rizzolatti, G. (1991) · The Journal of Comparative Neurology · doi:10.1002/cne.903110403 · Cited by 543 · see citing works
Fox, P. T., Mintun, M. A., Reiman, E. M., & Raichle, M. E. (1988) · Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism · doi:10.1038/jcbfm.1988.111 · Cited by 498 · see citing works
Procedural learning in Parkinson's disease and cerebellar degeneration
Pascual‐Leone, Á., Grafman, J. H., Clark, K., Stewart, M., Massaquoi, S. G., Lou, J., & Hallett, M. (1993) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.410340414 · Cited by 475 · see citing works
Motor learning in man: a positron emission tomographic study
Seitz, R. J., Roland, P. E., Bohm, C., Greitz, T., & Stone-Elander, S. (1990) · NeuroReport · doi:10.1097/00001756-199009000-00016 · Cited by 376 · see citing works
The Neural Basis for Learning of Simple Motor Skills
Lisberger, S. G. (1988) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.3055293 · Cited by 363 · see citing works
Long-Term Potentiation in the Motor Cortex
Iriki, A., Pavlides, C., Keller, A., & Asanuma, H. (1989) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.2551038 · Cited by 343 · see citing works
HUMAN FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF VISUALLY GUIDED FINGER MOVEMENTS
Grafton, S. T., Mazziotta, J. C., Woods, R., & Phelps, M. E. (1992) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/115.2.565 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
Self-citationShima, K., Aya, K., Mushiake, H., Inase, M., Aizawa, H., & Tanji, J. (1991) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1991.65.2.188 · Cited by 324 · see citing works
Movement-related inputs to intermediate cerebellum of the monkey
van Kan, P. L. E., Gibson, A. R., & Houk, J. C. (1993) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1993.69.1.74 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Neurophysiological correlates of hand preference in primary motor cortex of adult squirrel monkeys
Nudo, R. J., Jenkins, W., Merzenich, M. M., Prejean, T., & Grenda, R. (1992) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.12-08-02918.1992 · Cited by 295 · see citing works
Modulation of motor cortical outputs to the reading hand of braille readers
Pascual‐Leone, Á., Cammarota, Á., Wassermann, E. M., Brasil-Neto, J. P., Cohen, L. G., & Hallett, M. (1993) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.410340108 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
Jenkins, I. H., Bain, P. G., Colebatch, J. G., Thompson, P. D., Findley, L. J. J., Frackowiak, R. S. J., MARSDEN, C. D., & Brooks, D. J. (1993) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.410340115 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
Snoddy, G. S. (1926) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0075814 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
MOTOR LEARNING IN PATIENTS WITH CEREBELLAR DYSFUNCTION
Sanes, J. N., Dimitrov, B., & Hallett, M. (1990) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/113.1.103 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Plastic Transformation of PET Images
Friston, K. J., Frith, C., Liddle, P. F., & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1991) · Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography · doi:10.1097/00004728-199107000-00020 · Cited by 268 · see citing works
Roland, P. E., Meyer, E., Shibasaki, T., Yamamoto, Y., & Thompson, C. J. (1982) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1982.48.2.467 · Cited by 257 · see citing works
Fox, P. T., Mintun, M. A., Raichle, M. E., & Herscovitch, P. (1984) · Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism · doi:10.1038/jcbfm.1984.49 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Grafton, S. T., Woods, R. P., Mazziotta, J. C., & Phelps, M. E. (1991) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1991.66.3.735 · Cited by 240 · see citing works
Self-citationSearching for Ten Targets Simultaneously
Neisser, U., Novick, R., & Lazar, R. (1963) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1963.17.3.955 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Procedural memory in Parkinson's disease: Impaired motor but not visuoperceptual learning
Harrington, D. L., Haaland, K. Y., Yeo, R. A., & Marder, E. (1990) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/01688639008400978 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
Grafton, S. T., Woods, R., & Mazziotta, J. C. (1993) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/bf00229666 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Self-citationThe neural basis of basic associative learning of discrete behavioral responses
Thompson, R. F. (1988) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/0166-2236(88)90141-5 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
Neocortical representational dynamics in adult primates: Implications for neuropsychology
Jenkins, W. M., Merzenich, M. M., & Recanzone, G. H. (1990) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(90)90035-m · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Discrimination reaction time for a 1,023-alternative task.
Seibel, R. (1963) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0048914 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Mazziotta, J. C., Huang, S., Phelps, M. E., Carson, R. E., MacDonald, N. S., & Mahoney, K. (1985) · Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism · doi:10.1038/jcbfm.1985.10 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Human Neuroelectric Patterns Predict Performance Accuracy
Gevins, A. S., Morgan, N. H., Bressler, S. L., Cutillo, B. A., White, R., Illes, J., Greer, D. S., Doyle, J. C., & Zeitlin, G. M. (1987) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.3810158 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Functional mapping of the human cerebellum with positron emission tomography.
Fox, P. T., Raichle, M. E., & Thach, W. T. (1985) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.82.21.7462 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Sanes, J. N., Wang, J., & Donoghue, J. P. (1992) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/2.2.141 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Merzenich, M. M., Recanzone, G. H., Jenkins, W. M., & Grajski, K. A. (1990) · Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology · doi:10.1101/sqb.1990.055.01.082 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Lang, W., Lang, M., Podreka, I., Steiner, M. M., Uhl, F., Suess, E., M�ller, C., & Deecke, L. (1988) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/bf00247495 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Ibogaine fails to reduce naloxone-precipitated withdrawal in the morphine-dependent rat
Sharpe, L. G., & Jaffe, J. H. (1990) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/00001756-199009000-00005 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Long-term retention of perceptual-motor skills.
Ammons, R. B., Farr, R. G., Bloch, E., Neumann, E., Dey, M. K., Marion, R., & Ammons, C. H. (1958) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0041893 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“The principles of design and operation of the brain”
(1993) · Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1007/bf02336403 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
The Cerebellum and Memory Storage
Bloedel, J. R. (1987) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.3686013 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Niemann, J., Winker, T., Gerling, J., Landwehrmeyer, G. B., & Jung, R. (1991) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/bf00229418 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Religious Affiliation and Open-Mindedness in Binocular Resolution
Sciuto, L. A. L., & Hartley, E. L. (1963) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.1177/003151256301700202 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 58 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Functional imaging of brain responses to pain. A review and meta-analysis (2000)
Peyron, R., Laurent, B., & García-Larrea, L. (2000) · Neurophysiologie Clinique/Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/s0987-7053(00)00227-6 · Cited by 2,171 · see citing works
Karni, A., Meyer, G., Rey-Hipolito, C., Jezzard, P., Adams, M. M., Turner, R., & Ungerleider, L. G. (1998) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.95.3.861 · Cited by 1,387 · see citing works
Grafton, S., Arbib, M., Fadiga, L., & Rizzolatti, G. (1996) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/bf00227183 · Cited by 1,045 · see citing works
Self-citationHuman cerebellar activity reflecting an acquired internal model of a new tool
Imamizu, H., Miyauchi, S., Tamada, T., Sasaki, Y., Takino, R., Pütz, B., Yoshioka, T., & Kawato, M. (2000) · Nature · doi:10.1038/35003194 · Cited by 1,000 · see citing works
Neural Correlates of Motor Memory Consolidation
Shadmehr, R., & Holcomb, H. H. (1997) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.277.5327.821 · Cited by 1,022 · see citing works
Reorganization and plasticity in the adult brain during learning of motor skills
Doyon, J., & Benali, H. (2005) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.conb.2005.03.004 · Cited by 1,028 · see citing works
The primate cortico-cerebellar system: anatomy and function
Ramnani, N. (2006) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn1953 · Cited by 1,011 · see citing works
Distinct contribution of the cortico-striatal and cortico-cerebellar systems to motor skill learning
Doyon, J., Penhune, V. B., & Ungerleider, L. G. (2002) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(02)00158-6 · Cited by 885 · see citing works
Intuition: A social cognitive neuroscience approach.
Lieberman, M. D. (2000) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.1.109 · Cited by 805 · see citing works
A neuropsychological theory of motor skill learning.
Willingham, D. B. (1998) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.105.3.558 · Cited by 798 · see citing works
Contributions of the basal ganglia and functionally related brain structures to motor learning
Doyon, J., Bellec, P., Amsel, R., Penhune, V., Monchi, O., Carrier, J., Lehéricy, S., & Benali, H. (2009) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2008.11.012 · Cited by 783 · see citing works
Functional mapping of sequence learning in normal humans
Grafton, S. T., Hazeltine, E., & Ivry, R. (1995) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.1995.7.4.497 · Cited by 720 · see citing works
Self-citationFunctional Stages in the Formation of Human Long-Term Motor Memory
Shadmehr, R., & Brashers-Krug, T. M. (1997) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.17-01-00409.1997 · Cited by 700 · see citing works
Imaging brain plasticity during motor skill learning
Ungerleider, L. (2002) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1006/nlme.2002.4091 · Cited by 641 · see citing works
Distinct basal ganglia territories are engaged in early and advanced motor sequence learning
Lehéricy, S., Benali, H., Van de Moortele, P.-F., Pélégrini-Issac, M., Waechter, T., Ugurbil, K., & Doyon, J. (2005) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0502762102 · Cited by 634 · see citing works
Anatomy of motor learning. I. Frontal cortex and attention to action
Jueptner, M., Stephan, K. M., Frith, C. D., Brooks, D. J., Frackowiak, R. S. J., & Passingham, R. E. (1997) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1997.77.3.1313 · Cited by 624 · see citing works
Premotor Cortex Activation during Observation and Naming of Familiar Tools
Grafton, S. T., Fadiga, L., Arbib, M. A., & Rizzolatti, G. (1997) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.1997.0293 · Cited by 606 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Neural Correlates of Motor Skill Automaticity
Poldrack, R. A., Sabb, F. W., Foerde, K., Tom, S. M., Asarnow, R. F., Bookheimer, S. Y., & Knowlton, B. J. (2005) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3880-04.2005 · Cited by 594 · see citing works
“At the same time, previous studies of both motor (Grafton et al., 1994; Van Horn et al., 1998; Penhune and Doyon, 2002) and perceptual (Poldrack et al., 1998; Poldrack and Gabrieli, 2001) skill acquisition have found learning-related increases in activation in both cortical and subcortical regions,…”
ResultPostuma, R. B., & Dagher, A. (2006) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhj088 · Cited by 579 · see citing works
Haemodynamic brain responses to acute pain in humans
Peyron, R., Garcı́a-Larrea, L., Grégoire, M., Costes, N., Convers, P., Lavenne, F., Mauguı̀ere, F., Michel, D., & Laurent, B. (1999) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/122.9.1765 · Cited by 576 · see citing works
Mauss, I. B., Bunge, S. A., & Gross, J. J. (2007) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00005.x · Cited by 538 · see citing works
Motor learning in man: A review of functional and clinical studies
Halsband, U., & Lange, R. K. (2006) · Journal of Physiology-Paris · doi:10.1016/j.jphysparis.2006.03.007 · Cited by 536 · see citing works
Neuroimaging studies of the cerebellum: language, learning and memory
Desmond, J. E., & Fiez, J. A. (1998) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(98)01211-x · Cited by 507 · see citing works
A functional MRI study of automatic movements in patients with Parkinson's disease
Wu, T., & Hallett, M. (2005) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awh569 · Cited by 483 · see citing works
Multiple Nonprimary Motor Areas in the Human Cortex
Fink, G. R., Frackowiak, R. S. J., Pietrzyk, U., & Passingham, R. E. (1997) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1997.77.4.2164 · Cited by 478 · see citing works
Transition of Brain Activation from Frontal to Parietal Areas in Visuomotor Sequence Learning
Sakai, K., Hikosaka, O., Miyauchi, S., Takino, R., Sasaki, Y., & Pütz, B. (1998) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.18-05-01827.1998 · Cited by 468 · see citing works
Anatomy of Motor Learning. II. Subcortical Structures and Learning by Trial and Error
Jueptner, M., Frith, C., Brooks, D. J., Frackowiak, R. S. J., & Passingham, R. E. (1997) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1997.77.3.1325 · Cited by 466 · see citing works
Attention and stimulus characteristics determine the locus of motor-sequence encoding. A PET study
Hazeltine, E. (1997) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/120.1.123 · Cited by 459 · see citing works
Functional neuroimaging correlates of finger-tapping task variations: An ALE meta-analysis
Witt, S. T., Laird, A. R., & Meyerand, M. E. (2008) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.04.025 · Cited by 406 · see citing works
Jäncke, L., Shah, N. J., & Peters, M. (2000) · Cognitive Brain Research · doi:10.1016/s0926-6410(00)00028-8 · Cited by 376 · see citing works
Differential Corticostriatal Plasticity during Fast and Slow Motor Skill Learning in Mice
Costa, R. M., Cohen, D., & Nicolelis, M. A. L. (2004) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2004.06.053 · Cited by 373 · see citing works
Dynamic cortical involvement in implicit and explicit motor sequence learning. A PET study
Honda, M. (1998) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/121.11.2159 · Cited by 370 · see citing works
Cerebellar Contributions to Motor Timing: A PET Study of Auditory and Visual Rhythm Reproduction
Penhune, V. B., Zatorre, R. J., & Evans, A. C. (1998) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/089892998563149 · Cited by 370 · see citing works
Motor sequence learning with the nondominant left hand
Grafton, S. T., Hazeltine, E., & Ivry, R. B. (2002) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-002-1181-y · Cited by 366 · see citing works
Self-citationActivation of medial temporal structures during episodic memory retrieval
Nyberg, L. H., McLntosh, A. R., Houle, S., Nilsson, L.-G., & Tulving, E. (1996) · Nature · doi:10.1038/380715a0 · Cited by 350 · see citing works
Cortical activations during paced finger-tapping applying visual and auditory pacing stimuli
Jäncke, L., Loose, R., Lutz, K., Specht, K., & Shah, N. J. (2000) · Cognitive Brain Research · doi:10.1016/s0926-6410(00)00022-7 · Cited by 332 · see citing works
Abstract and Effector-Specific Representations of Motor Sequences Identified with PET
Grafton, S. T., Hazeltine, E., & Ivry, R. B. (1998) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.18-22-09420.1998 · Cited by 327 · see citing works
Self-citationMax, L., Guenther, F. H., Gracco, V. L., Ghosh, S. S., & Wallace, M. (2004) · Contemporary Issues in Communication Science and Disorders · doi:10.1044/cicsd_31_s_105 · Cited by 289 · see citing works
Prediction and preparation, fundamental functions of the cerebellum.Preprint
Courchesne, E., & Allen, G. (1997) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.4.1.1 · Cited by 288 · see citing works
How self-initiated memorized movements become automatic: A functional MRI study
Wu, T., Kansaku, K., & Hallett, M. (2004) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.01052.2003 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
Functional Anatomy of Pointing and Grasping in Humans
Grafton, S. T., Fagg, A. H., Woods, R. P., & Arbib, M. A. (1996) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/6.2.226 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Brain That Plays Music and Is Changed by It
Pascual‐Leone, Á. (2001) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb05741.x · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Neuronal Activity in Medial Frontal Cortex During Learning of Sequential Procedures
Nakamura, K., Sakai, K., & Hikosaka, O. (1998) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1998.80.5.2671 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
Dynamic Cortical and Subcortical Networks in Learning and Delayed Recall of Timed Motor Sequences
Penhune, V. B., & Doyon, J. (2002) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.22-04-01397.2002 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Dorsal Premotor Cortex and Conditional Movement Selection: A PET Functional Mapping Study
Grafton, S. T., Fagg, A. H., & Arbib, M. A. (1998) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1998.79.2.1092 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Self-citationA PET investigation of implicit and explicit sequence learning
Rauch, S. L., Savage, C. R., Brown, H. D., Curran, T., Alpert, N. M., Kendrick, A., Fischman, A. J., & Kosslyn, S. M. (1995) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.460030403 · Cited by 237 · see citing works
Winstein, C. J., Grafton, S. T., & Pohl, P. S. (1997) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1997.77.3.1581 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Self-citationThe neural basis of visual skill learning: an fMRI study of mirror reading
Poldrack, R. (1998) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/8.1.1 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Visual pathways for object-oriented action and object recognition: functional anatomy with PET
Faillenot, I. (1997) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/7.1.77 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Mier, H. I. V., Tempel, L. W., Perlmutter, J. S., Raichle, M. E., & Petersen, S. E. (1998) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1998.80.4.2177 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Transcranial magnetic stimulation and neuroplasticity
Pascual‐Leone, Á., Tarazona, F., Keenan, J. P., Tormos, J. M., Hamilton, R. H., & Catalá, M. D. (1998) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(98)00095-5 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Implicit motor sequence learning is not purely perceptual
Willingham, D. B. (1999) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03211549 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Kirschen, M. P., Chen, S. A., Schraedley-Desmond, P., & Desmond, J. E. (2004) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.08.036 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Neural pathways mediating cross education of motor function
Ruddy, K. L., & Carson, R. G. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00397 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Functional reorganisation of the corticomotor projection to the hand in skilled racquet players
Pearce, A. J., Thickbroom, G. W., Byrnes, M. L., & Mastaglia, F. L. (2000) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s002219900236 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Frontal and Parietal Networks for Conditional Motor Learning: A Positron Emission Tomography Study
Deiber, M., Wise, S. P., Honda, M., Catalan, M.-J., Grafman, J. H., & Hallett, M. (1997) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1997.78.2.977 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Do children with developmental dyslexia have an implicit learning deficit?
Vicari, S. (2005) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp.2004.061093 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Maquet, P., Schwartz, S., Passingham, R. E., & Frith, C. (2003) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.23-04-01432.2003 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Doyon, J., Laforce, R. J., Bouchard, G., Gaudreau, D., Roy, J., Poirier, M., Bédard, P. J., Bédard, F., & Bouchard, J.-P. (1998) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(97)00168-1 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Sequence‐specific procedural learning deficits in children with specific language impairment
Hsu, H. J., & Bishop, D. (2014) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12125 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
Tarantini, S., Valcarcel‐Ares, M. N., Yabluchanskiy, A., Fülöp, G. Á., Hertelendy, P., Gautam, T., Farkas, E., Perz, A., Rabinovitch, P. S., Sonntag, W. E., et al. (2018) · Aging Cell · doi:10.1111/acel.12731 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Functions and structures of the motor cortices in humans
Roland, P. E., & Zilles, K. (1996) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/s0959-4388(96)80027-4 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Implicit learning deficits in dyslexic adults: An fMRI study
Menghini, D., Hagberg, G. E., Caltagirone, C., Petrosini, L., & Vicari, S. (2006) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.08.024 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Grafton, S. T., Waters, C., Sutton, J. P., Lew, M., & Couldwell, W. T. (1995) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.410370611 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Self-citationMotor skill acquisition across short and long time scales: A meta-analysis of neuroimaging data
Lohse, K. R., Wadden, K. P., Boyd, L. A., & Hodges, N. J. (2014) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.05.001 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Miller, M. B., Horn, J. D. V., Wolford, G., Handy, T. C., Valsangkar-Smyth, M., Inati, S., Grafton, S. T., & Gazzaniga, M. S. (2002) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/089892902760807203 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Self-citationThe effects of practice and delay on motor skill learning and retention
Savion‐Lemieux, T., & Penhune, V. B. (2004) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-004-2085-9 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Schiltz, C., Bodart, J.-M., Dubois, S., Dejardin, S., Michel, C. J., Roucoux, A., Crommelinck, M., & Orban, G. A. (1999) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.1998.0394 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Resting-state cortical connectivity predicts motor skill acquisition
Wu, J., Srinivasan, R., Kaur, A., & Cramer, S. C. (2014) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.01.026 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Pascual‐Leone, Á., Wassermann, E. M., Sadato, N., & Hallett, M. (1995) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.410380611 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Neural substrates of visuomotor learning based on improved feedback control and prediction
Grafton, S. T., Schmitt, P. J., Horn, J. D. V., & Diedrichsen, J. (2007) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.09.062 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Self-citationFrontal regions involved in learning of motor skill—A functional NIRS study
Hatakenaka, M., Miyai, I., Mihara, M., Sakoda, S., & Kubota, K. (2006) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.08.014 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Effect of focal cerebellar lesions on procedural learning in the serial reaction time task
G�mez-Beldarrain, M., Garc�a-Monc�, J. C., Rubio, B., & Pascual‐Leone, Á. (1998) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s002210050374 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Flament, D., Ellermann, J. M., Kim, S.-G., Uǧurbil, K., & Ebner, T. J. (1996) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.460040302 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Procedural motor learning in Parkinson's disease
Krebs, H. I., Hogan, N., Hening, W., Adamovich, S. V., & Howard Poizner, A. (2001) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s002210100871 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Goedert, K. M., & Willingham, D. B. (2002) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.50102 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Plastic Corticostriatal Circuits for Action Learning
Costa, R. M. (2007) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1196/annals.1390.015 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Saggar, M., Quintin, E., Kienitz, E., Bott, N. T., Sun, Z., Hong, W.-C., Chien, Y.-H., Liu, N., Dougherty, R. F., Royalty, A., et al. (2015) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep10894 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Stančák, A., Kozák, J., Vrba, I., Tintěra, J., Vrána, J., Poláček, H., & Stančák, M. (2007) · European Journal of Pain · doi:10.1016/j.ejpain.2007.03.003 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Individual Variability in Brain Activity: A Nuisance or an Opportunity?
Horn, J. D. V., Grafton, S. T., & Miller, M. B. (2008) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-008-9049-9 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Self-citationBelger, A., Puce, A., Krystal, J. H., Gore, J. C., Goldman‐Rakic, P. S., & McCarthy, G. (1998) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0193(1998)6:1 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Effective connectivity of neural networks in automatic movements in Parkinson's disease
Wu, T., Chan, P., & Hallett, M. (2009) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.10.051 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Motor control of handwriting in the developing brain: A review
Palmis, S., Danna, J., Velay, J., & Longcamp, M. (2017) · Cognitive Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/02643294.2017.1367654 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Comparison Between Monopolar and Bipolar Electrical Stimulation of the Motor Cortex
Kombos, T., Suess, O., Kern, B.-C., Funk, T., Hoell, T., Kopetsch, O., & Brock, M. (1999) · Acta Neurochirurgica · doi:10.1007/s007010050433 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Gordon, A. M., Lee, J.-H., Flament, D., Uǧurbil, K., & Ebner, T. J. (1998) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s002210050447 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Evidence that the pattern of visuomotor sequence learning is altered in children with autism
Larson, J. C. G., & Mostofsky, S. H. (2008) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.54 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Interference of Left and Right Cerebellar rTMS with Procedural Learning
Torriero, S., Oliveri, M., Koch, G., Caltagirone, C., & Petrosini, L. (2004) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/0898929042568488 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Weickert, T. W., Terrazas, A., Bigelow, L. B., Malley, J. D., Hyde, T. M., Egan, M. F., Weinberger, D. R., & Goldberg, T. E. (2002) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.49102 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Attention to action and awareness of other minds
Frith, C. (2002) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/s1053-8100(02)00022-3 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
A PET Study of Visuomotor Learning under Optical Rotation
Inoue, K., Kawashima, R., Satoh, K., Kinomura, S., Sugiura, M., Goto, R., Ito, M., & Fukuda, H. (2000) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2000.0554 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Learning-related fMRI activation associated with a rotational visuo-motor transformation
Graydon, F. X., Friston, K. J., Thomas, C. G., Brooks, V. B., & Menon, R. S. (2004) · Cognitive Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.09.007 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Woodard, J. L., Grafton, S. T., Votaw, J. R., Green, R. C., Dobraski, M. E., & Hoffman, J. M. (1998) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/0894-4105.12.4.491 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Self-citationEffects of Local Inactivation of Monkey Medial Frontal Cortex in Learning of Sequential Procedures
Nakamura, K., Sakai, K., & Hikosaka, O. (1999) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1999.82.2.1063 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Modifications of the interactions in the motor networks when a movement becomes automatic
Wu, T., Chan, P., & Hallett, M. (2008) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2008.153445 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Functional MRI study of a serial reaction time task in Huntington's disease
Kim, J.-S., Reading, S. A. J., Brashers-Krug, T. M., Calhoun, V. D., Ross, C. A., & Pearlson, G. D. (2004) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2004.03.002 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Della‐Maggiore, V., & McIntosh, A. R. (2004) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00984.2004 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
The scope of preserved procedural memory in amnesia
Cavaco, S. (2004) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awh208 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Distinct Contribution of the Striatum and Cerebellum to Motor Learning
Laforce, R. J., & Doyon, J. (2001) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1006/brcg.2000.1237 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Procedural learning in schizophrenia: a functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation
Kumari, V., Gray, J. A., Honey, G. D., Soni, W., Bullmore, E. T., Williams, S., Ng, V., Vythelingum, G. N., Simmons, A., John Suckling, A., et al. (2002) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/s0920-9964(01)00270-5 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Cortical Plasticity During Three-Week Motor Skill Learning
Hluštı́k, P., Solodkin, A., Noll, D. C., & Small, S. L. (2004) · Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1097/00004691-200405000-00006 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
- Authors
- Grafton, S. T., Woods, R. P., & Tyszka, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Southern California (US)
- Corresponding author
- Grafton, Scot. T.
- ORCID
- Woods, Roger P.
- Venue
- Human Brain Mapping
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 1994-01
- Volume
- 1
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 221-234
- ISSN
- 1065-9471 (ISSN-L)
- 1097-0193
- OpenAlex
- W1813876927
- Cited by
- 214
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 5.53
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Human Brain Mapping (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Motor Control and Adaptation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Sport Psychology and Performance
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- regional cerebral blood flow, pursuit rotor task, premotor cortex, prefrontal cortex, cerebellum, putamen, parietal cortex, internal models, cortical motor areas
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
