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Cited by 129Information Architecture and UsabilityHealth Literacy and Information AccessibilityUsability and User Interface Design

The Information Architecture of Behavior Change Websites

Open access
Danaher, Brian G, McKay, H Garth, Seeley, John R·2005·Journal of Medical Internet Research
DOI 10.2196/jmir.7.2.e12PMC PMC1550648
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Abstract

The extraordinary growth in Internet use offers researchers important new opportunities to identify and test new ways to deliver effective behavior change programs. The information architecture (IA)-the structure of website information--is an important but often overlooked factor to consider when adapting behavioral strategies developed in office-based settings for Web delivery. Using examples and relevant perspectives from multiple disciplines, we describe a continuum of website IA designs ranging from a matrix design to the tunnel design. The free-form matrix IA design allows users free rein to use multiple hyperlinks to explore available content according to their idiosyncratic interests. The more directive tunnel IA design (commonly used in e-learning courses) guides users step-by-step through a series of Web pages that are arranged in a particular order to improve the chances of achieving a goal that is measurable and consistent. Other IA designs are also discussed, including hierarchical IA and hybrid IA designs. In the hierarchical IA design, program content is arranged in a top-down manner, which helps the user find content of interest. The more complex hybrid IA design incorporates some combination of components that use matrix, tunnel, and/or hierarchical IA designs. Each of these IA designs is discussed in terms of usability, participant engagement, and program tailoring, as well as how they might best be matched with different behavior change goals (using Web-based smoking cessation interventions as examples). Our presentation underscores the role of considering and clearly reporting the use of IA designs when creating effective Web-based interventions. We also encourage the adoption of a multidisciplinary perspective as we move towards a more mature view of Internet intervention research.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This conceptual paper describes a continuum of website information architecture (IA) designs—matrix, hierarchical, tunnel, and hybrid—and argues that IA is an overlooked factor in adapting behavior change programs for Web delivery. Using smoking cessation examples, it proposes matching IA designs to behavior change goals and calls for empirical testing and multidisciplinary perspectives.

Key findings

  • The paper defines four IA designs: matrix (free-form hyperlinks), hierarchical (top-down organization), tunnel (step-by-step sequence), and hybrid (combination of modules). Table 1 summarizes strengths and constraints: matrix encourages discovery but can disorient; hierarchical is familiar and easy to retrace but deep nesting or poor labels can hinder users; tunnel controls timing and amount of content but may frustrate users and reduce follow-through; hybrid can fit content and purpose but moving between different IA designs may create usability challenges.
  • Smoking cessation examples include the 1-2-3 SmokeFree program, which uses a hybrid IA with an extended tunnel of more than 20 sequential steps and eight Web pages based on a hierarchical IA for optional cessation content. An NCI smokeless tobacco site presents booklet information as six Web pages in a tunnel IA, and Smokefree.gov’s “online guide to quitting” uses a hierarchical table of contents plus tunnel-like “Move on to…” links.
  • The discussion suggests matrix IA may suit users resolving ambiguity about whether to attempt behavior change, while tunnel IA may better match users who are committed and ready to change; tunnel programs may improve with a module allowing exploration of risks, benefits, and feelings about change.
  • The authors call for parametric research on the interaction between website IA features and behavior change requirements, noting that the rationale for any particular IA design is largely theoretical rather than validated or universally accepted.

Methods

  • Conceptual/descriptive article, not an empirical study; no sample, intervention trial, or statistical analysis is reported.
  • It synthesizes multidisciplinary perspectives—including graphic design, navigation design, and IA—and uses Web-based smoking cessation interventions as illustrative examples.
  • It presents schematic figures and Table 1 comparing IA designs; no formal data collection or analysis is described.

Limitations

  • Stated: the rationale for using any particular IA design is “largely theoretical rather than validated or universally accepted”; the literature is lacking on how much intervention success is due to IA; and little is known about how users accommodate the unfamiliar confines of tunnel IA.
  • Evident: the paper reports no empirical comparison of IA designs, no usability or engagement data, and no behavior change outcomes; the smoking cessation examples are illustrative rather than evaluated.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.2196/jmir.7.2.e12

Cites

36 of 36 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 61 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Interpretationreasoning

    The translational process of porting interventions to the Internet is not simple because researchers face new challenges in adapting content and interventions to take advantage of the Internet's capacities for measurable behavior change.

    “These researchers are finding, however, that this translational process is not simple since they are faced with a new set of challenges inherent in adapting their content and interventions to take fuller advantage of the unique capacities of the Internet to encourage measurable behavior change.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    The hierarchical design has significantly fewer links between pages than the matrix design.

    “In contrast to the matrix design (Figure 2), the hierarchical design has significantly fewer links between pages [12,25].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [12] LynchPJHortonSBasic information structuresWeb Style Guide2005 Apr 82http://www.webstyleguide.com/site/basic_structures.html

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [25] Lynch, Patrick, 2002, Web Style Guide: Basic Design Principles for Creating Web Sites

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Interpretationreasoning

    Websites with a hierarchical design tend to reduce the confusion that comes from users being presented with too many links and options, as may be associated with the matrix design.

    “Websites with a hierarchical design tend to reduce the kind of confusion that comes from users being presented with too many links and options (as may be associated with the matrix design).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    Many users are familiar with information arranged hierarchically because it is similar to a table of contents and mimics the tree-like file directory/subdirectory structure used by operating systems.

    “In addition, many users are familiar with information arranged in hierarchical fashion since it is similar to a table of contents design and it mimics the tree-like file directory/subdirectory structure that operating systems use to organize files [26].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [26] Watson, J, 1998, Society for Technical Communications Mini-Conference

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Interpretationcitation

    A user may become confused unless his or her mental model of the content grouping, and the labels used to describe the content groups, corresponds to the way content is organized on the website.

    “In addition, a user may become confused unless his/her mental model of the content grouping, and even the labels used to describe the content groups, corresponds to the way that content is organized on the website [16,20,25].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [16] PirolliPFuWSNIF-ACT: a model of information foraging on the World Wide Web2005 Apr 8Ninth International Conference on User ModelingJune 22-26 2003Johnstown, Pennsylvaniahttp://www2.parc.com/istl/groups/uir/pubs/items/UIR-2003-02-Pirolli-UM-SNIFACT.pdf

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [20] source

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    • cites [25] Lynch, Patrick, 2002, Web Style Guide: Basic Design Principles for Creating Web Sites

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 47
  • May combine two claims. 11

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The free-form matrix IA design allows users free rein to use multiple hyperlinks to explore available content according to their idiosyncratic interests.

    “The free-form matrix IA design allows users free rein to use multiple hyperlinks to explore available content according to their idiosyncratic interests.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    In the hierarchical IA design, program content is arranged in a top-down manner, which helps the user find content of interest.

    “In the hierarchical IA design, program content is arranged in a top-down manner, which helps the user find content of interest.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The tunnel IA design guides users step-by-step through a series of Web pages arranged in a particular order to improve the chances of achieving a measurable and consistent goal.

    “The more directive tunnel IA design (commonly used in e-learning courses) guides users step-by-step through a series of Web pages that are arranged in a particular order to improve the chances of achieving a goal that is measurable and consistent.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    The hybrid IA design incorporates some combination of components that use matrix, tunnel, and/or hierarchical IA designs.

    “The more complex hybrid IA design incorporates some combination of components that use matrix, tunnel, and/or hierarchical IA designs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation

    Rapidly emerging design principles and empirical data on how users best interact with website content can serve as new guides to website design and information structuring.

    “Rapidly emerging design principles that take into consideration current practices as well as empirical data that describe how users best interact with website content can serve as new guides to the design and information structuring of websites [12,13].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [12] LynchPJHortonSBasic information structuresWeb Style Guide2005 Apr 82http://www.webstyleguide.com/site/basic_structures.html

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [13] IBMEase of use: design2005 Apr 27http://www-306.ibm.com/ibm/easy/eou_ext.nsf/publish/561

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Behavioral science and health care researchers are beginning to port their individual and group-based interventions to the Internet in increasing numbers.

    “behavioral science and health care researchers are beginning to port their individual and group-based interventions to the Internet in increasing numbers [1,2].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [1] Bush, Nigel E, 2004, Prev Chronic Dis

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [2] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Reviews have attempted to rate the adequacy of behavior change websites.

    “We acknowledge the important role played by reviews that attempt to rate the adequacy of behavior change websites [4-10].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 7 sources checked
    • cites [4] source

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    • cites [5] source

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    • cites [6] source

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    • cites [7] source

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    • cites [8] source

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    • cites [9] National Cancer InstituteResearch-Based Web Design & Usability Guidelines2005 Apr 8http://usability.gov/guidelines/

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [10] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Unrestricted ad lib interaction between users and websites shares meaningful similarities with the manner in which wild animals forage for food.

    “Some researchers have postulated that this type of unrestricted (ad lib) interaction between users and websites shares meaningful similarities with the manner in which wild animals forage for food.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [16] PirolliPFuWSNIF-ACT: a model of information foraging on the World Wide Web2005 Apr 8Ninth International Conference on User ModelingJune 22-26 2003Johnstown, Pennsylvaniahttp://www2.parc.com/istl/groups/uir/pubs/items/UIR-2003-02-Pirolli-UM-SNIFACT.pdf

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [19] PirolliPCardSThe Evolutionary Ecology of Information Foraging (Technical Report UIR-R97-01)199762005 Apr 8http://www2.parc.com/istl/groups/uir/pubs/items/UIR-1997-01-Pirolli.pdf

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [20] source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [21] Larson, K, 1998, Proceedings of the ACM SIG CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI '98)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Websites with a matrix IA design embody the principles of the originators of hypertext, HTML, and the Web and take fullest advantage of HTML's hyperlink capabilities to allow users to review all website content.

    “Websites with a matrix IA design embody the principles of the originators of hypertext, HTML, and the Web [22,23], and they take fullest advantage of HTML's hyperlink capabilities to allow users to review all website content (Figure 2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [22] Berners-leeTInformation management: a proposalW3 Archive19902005 Apr 26http://www.w3.org/History/1989/proposal.html

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [23] NelsonTedWeb historyLiving Internet2005 Apr 26http://livinginternet.com/w/wi_nelson.htm

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Standardization of website design will be difficult to achieve in any final form because new website designs and browser capabilities inevitably emerge.

    “Yet standardization will undoubtedly be a difficult goal to achieve in any final form since new website designs and browser capabilities that try to escape the limitations of today's browser experience inevitably emerge (see Garrett's discussion of Ajax [18]).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] GarrettJJAjax: A new approach to web applicationsAdaptive Path20052182005 Apr 26http://www.adaptivepath.com/publications/essays/archives/000385.php

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    As website conventions become more widely adopted, users will be able to navigate websites successfully without consciously processing the underlying structural and usability rules.

    “As website conventions become more widely adopted, users will be able to navigate websites successfully without having to process the underlying structural and usability “rules” in a conscious manner [14-17].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [14] TognazziniBAsk TOG: First principles of interaction design2005 Apr 8http://www.asktog.com/basics/firstPrinciples.html

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [15] Tognazzini, Bruce, 1992, Tog on Interface

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [16] PirolliPFuWSNIF-ACT: a model of information foraging on the World Wide Web2005 Apr 8Ninth International Conference on User ModelingJune 22-26 2003Johnstown, Pennsylvaniahttp://www2.parc.com/istl/groups/uir/pubs/items/UIR-2003-02-Pirolli-UM-SNIFACT.pdf

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [17] van Duyne, Douglas K, 2002, The Design of Sites: Patterns, Principles, and Processes for Crafting a Customer-Centered Web Experience

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    When properly created, the matrix IA design can expedite a user's search of the content.

    “When properly created, this design can expedite a user's search of the content.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Multiple disciplines contribute to the overall design of any website, including graphic design, navigation design, and IA.

    “As depicted in Figure 1, multiple disciplines contribute to the overall design of any website, including graphic design (the visual and aesthetic communication of information), navigation design (methods to help users find their way around a website), and IA (the coherent structure and display of content) [17].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [17] van Duyne, Douglas K, 2002, The Design of Sites: Patterns, Principles, and Processes for Crafting a Customer-Centered Web Experience

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    From the information foraging perspective, users are free to follow the information scent, which helps them determine if the effort of the search will be rewarded by finding desired information.

    “From this information foraging perspective, users are free to follow the “information scent,” which helps them determine if the effort of the search will be rewarded by finding desired nuggets or chunks of information [16,19-21].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [16] PirolliPFuWSNIF-ACT: a model of information foraging on the World Wide Web2005 Apr 8Ninth International Conference on User ModelingJune 22-26 2003Johnstown, Pennsylvaniahttp://www2.parc.com/istl/groups/uir/pubs/items/UIR-2003-02-Pirolli-UM-SNIFACT.pdf

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [19] PirolliPCardSThe Evolutionary Ecology of Information Foraging (Technical Report UIR-R97-01)199762005 Apr 8http://www2.parc.com/istl/groups/uir/pubs/items/UIR-1997-01-Pirolli.pdf

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [20] source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [21] Larson, K, 1998, Proceedings of the ACM SIG CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI '98)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Users of most websites typically enjoy considerable freedom in accessing content, including when, what, how much, in what order, and whether to copy, save, or print content.

    “Users of most websites typically enjoy considerable freedom when it comes to accessing content.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The freedom of movement and exploration associated with the matrix design may cause users to become disoriented, lost in hypertext, and to have difficulty retracing steps to review content already seen.

    “Moreover, the freedom of movement and exploration associated with the matrix design may come at a cost because users may become disoriented, quite literally lost in hypertext, and may experience great difficulty when trying to retrace their steps to review what they have already seen [24].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [24] Bernard, ML, 2004, Criteria for optimal web design (designing for usability): how can I make my website's structure more navigable?

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The usefulness of a hierarchical design diminishes if content is nested too deeply, increasing the burden on the user because of the added effort required to drill down through content to locate desired information.

    “The usefulness of a hierarchical design diminishes if the content is nested too deeply (in too many levels). When this occurs, the burden on the user is increased because of the added effort required to drill down through so much content in order to locate the desired information [21].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [21] Larson, K, 1998, Proceedings of the ACM SIG CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI '98)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    Hierarchical IA designs help users find desired content by locating a broad theme and then drilling down into more detailed information.

    “Hierarchical IA designs help users find desired content by locating a broad theme and then drilling down into more detailed information.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    In hierarchical IA designs, information is organized in a top-down manner so that the user can review increasingly detailed content.

    “In hierarchical IA designs, information is organized in a top-down manner so that the user can review increasingly detailed content.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The matrix design is most applicable to small websites designed for highly educated and experienced users already familiar with the basic organization of the content and visiting for further education or enrichment.

    “Instead, they recommend that the matrix design is most applicable to small websites that are designed for use by highly educated and experienced users who are already familiar with the basic organization of the content and who are visiting in order to obtain further education or enrichment.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [12] LynchPJHortonSBasic information structuresWeb Style Guide2005 Apr 82http://www.webstyleguide.com/site/basic_structures.html

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [25] Lynch, Patrick, 2002, Web Style Guide: Basic Design Principles for Creating Web Sites

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The matrix design can be very efficient by offering the maximum amount of content within the confines of a Web page and using multiple links to content on many different pages.

    “The matrix design can be very efficient in that it offers the user the maximum amount of content within the confines of a Web page, and it uses multiple links that transport the user to content available on many different pages.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    In a hierarchical design, it is relatively easy to find one's way back through content already viewed by moving back up the hierarchical structure.

    “And it is relatively easy to find your way back through content already viewed because it simply involves moving back up the hierarchical structure.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    A website with a matrix design may not be well-suited to helping users become familiar with a new content area.

    “As a result, Lynch and Horton [12,25] have suggested that a website with a matrix design may not be well-suited to helping users become familiar with a new content area.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [12] LynchPJHortonSBasic information structuresWeb Style Guide2005 Apr 82http://www.webstyleguide.com/site/basic_structures.html

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [25] Lynch, Patrick, 2002, Web Style Guide: Basic Design Principles for Creating Web Sites

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The tunnel IA design represents the opposite end of the continuum from the matrix design; instead of free access to content, the user follows a step-by-step page-by-page approach.

    “Websites based on a tunnel IA design represent the opposite end of the continuum from a matrix design. Instead of free access to content, the user follows a step-by-step (page-by-page) approach (Figure 4).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The matrix design is particularly well-suited for finding information, although its efficiency depends on how well the links anticipate the user's search preferences.

    “It is particularly well-suited for finding information although its efficiency is associated with how well the links anticipate the user's search preferences.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    When links are too numerous or do not anticipate a user's search pattern, the user may have to search through all available listings.

    “When links are too numerous or do not anticipate a user's search pattern, then the user may well have to search through all available listings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Tunnel programs can be targeted by adapting content in the tunnel to better address a particular demographic audience.

    “For example, they can be targeted in the sense that content in the tunnel can be adapted to better address a particular demographic audience.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    E-learning courses typically have a series of lessons that present content, test comprehension, and provide remedial loops and conditional branching.

    “These typically have a series of lessons that present the content, test for comprehension, and provide remedial loops and other conditional branching [28].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [28] Iuppa, Nicholas V, 2001, Interactive Design for New Media and the Web source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Users matriculating through an e-learning program may be more motivated to cope with frustration and accept the constraints of tunnel designs than most prospective participants of Web-based behavior change programs.

    “Users who are matriculating through an e-learning program (eg, students, employees receiving online training or obtaining career critical certification) may be more motivated to cope with the frustration and accept the constraints of tunnel designs than would most prospective participants of Web-based behavior change programs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Little is currently known about how users accommodate the unfamiliar confines of a website based on a tunnel IA design.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    It is possible to mix and match matrix, tunnel, and hierarchical designs.

    “It is possible to mix and match matrix, tunnel, and hierarchical designs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Tunnel programs can be tailored by containing tests of knowledge and comprehension of key learning points, along with remedial loops as necessary.

    “They can also be tailored in the sense that the program can contain tests of knowledge as well as comprehension of key learning points, along with remedial loops as necessary.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisecitation

    Almost all e-learning courses adhere to a tunnel design.

    “Almost all e-learning courses adhere to a tunnel design.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    The tunnel design eliminates access to ancillary or related Web pages that are viewed as potential distractions.

    “This design eliminates access to any ancillary or related Web pages that are viewed as potential distractions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Tunnel designs require few navigational controls other than prior and next buttons, while ancillary Web pages may require additional navigational controls similar to those in a matrix IA design.

    “While tunnel designs require few navigational controls other than the prior and next buttons, ancillary Web pages may have far richer content that requires additional navigational controls (similar to those found in a matrix IA design).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Hybrid designs are composed of multiple IA modules, each of which can be described along the continuum from matrix and tunnel designs.

    “Hybrid designs are composed of multiple IA modules, each of which can be described along the continuum from matrix and tunnel designs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Tunnel programs are not, by definition, inflexible.

    “Finally, it is important to acknowledge that tunnel programs are not, by definition, inflexible.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The tunnel IA design presents significant challenges because HTML was designed as hypertext markup for documents rather than as a software interface for Web applications.

    “It should be noted that the tunnel IA design presents significant challenges since HTML was designed as hypertext markup for documents rather than a software interface for Web applications.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    If ancillary pages provide links to Web resources outside the behavior change program, some users might leave the current session while others might not be able to find their way back to their point of departure.

    “Similarly, if ancillary pages provide links to Web page resources outside of the behavior change program, some users might choose to leave the current session while others might not be able to find their way back to their point of departure [26].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [26] Watson, J, 1998, Society for Technical Communications Mini-Conference

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    No matter how efficacious a tunnel-based program is found to be, its effectiveness can be seriously undermined if users find the experience too unfamiliar, inflexible, and unpalatable.

    “No matter how efficacious a tunnel-based program is found to be, its effectiveness can be seriously undermined if users find the experience too unfamiliar, inflexible, and, thus, unpalatable.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Offering alternative ways of interacting with content can spur the user to become more involved in his or her own learning rather than falling into a mode of a passive page turner.

    “It can spur the user to become more involved in his/her own learning rather than falling into a mode of a passive page turner.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Hybrid designs can give users more guidance than can be obtained from matrix IA designs.

    “For example, hybrid designs can give users more guidance than can be obtained from matrix IA designs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Transformations from tunnel to matrix require the development of carefully modularized, data-driven websites that display content based on the interaction of logic scripts, SQL databases, and cascading stylesheets.

    “Instead, these transformations require the development of carefully modularized, data-driven websites that display content based on the interaction of logic scripts (eg, PHP, ASP, ColdFusion), SQL databases, and cascading stylesheets.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Depending on what is contained on ancillary Web pages, the user can have a far richer and more effective learning experience and outcome.

    “Depending upon what is contained on the ancillary Web pages, the user can have a far richer and more effective learning experience and outcome.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    When the user has seen all required content in a tunnel, the IA of that Web-based program can change from a tunnel to a matrix so that the user can freely access any available content.

    “When the user has seen all of the required content contained in a tunnel (accomplished all of the required steps in the required order), then the IA of that Web-based program can change from a tunnel to a matrix so that the user can freely access any of the available content.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Hybrid designs may well reduce attrition by users who find the tunnel experience to be too constraining.

    “It is also important to note that hybrid designs may well reduce attrition by users who find the tunnel experience to be too constraining.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    More free-form matrix IA designs might be particularly well-suited to a website or portion of a large website designed to help users resolve their ambiguity about whether or not to engage in a behavior change attempt.

    “For example, the more free-form matrix IA designs might be particularly well-suited to a website (or portion of a large website) designed to help users resolve their ambiguity regarding whether or not to engage in a behavior change attempt [37].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [37] source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: The rationale for using any particular IA design is largely theoretical rather than validated or universally accepted.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    It is possible to adapt the tunnel design so that it morphs into a more flexible design once the user has completed a required step of content.

    “It is also possible to adapt the tunnel design so that it morphs into a more flexible design once the user has completed a required step of content.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The ease of transforming a website from a tunnel to a matrix IA design is greatly improved when the sites are not created using hand-coded HTML.

    “Note that the ease of transforming a website from a tunnel to a matrix IA design is greatly improved when the sites are not created using hand-coded HTML.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the 1-2-3 SmokeFree smoking cessation program, the user can reverse direction via the prior button or expand/collapse features of the left navigation bar to review content already covered.

    “In this smoking cessation program, the user is able to reverse direction in the program (via the prior button or using the expand/collapse features of the left navigation bar) in order to review any of the content already covered.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] SwartzLHGNoellJWSchroederSAryDARandomized control study of a fully automated Internet-based smoking cessation programTob Control2005[in press]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Revolutionary advances in technology will act as a catalyst to expand the scope and impact of persuasive technology and Internet-based health behavior change programs.

    “As a result, it is reasonable to conclude that these revolutionary advances will act as a catalyst to expand the scope and impact of both persuasive technology, in general [30,50], and of Internet-based health behavior change programs [51].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [30] Reeves, Byron, 2003, The Media Equation: How People Treat Computers, Television, and New Media Like Real People and Places (CSLI Lecture Notes S.)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [50] Fogg, B J, 2002, Persuasive Technology: Using Computers to Change What We Think and Do

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [51] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Participants who are more committed and ready to change would be best matched with a tunnel IA design that guides them through step-by-step change.

    “Perhaps participants who are more committed and ready to change would be best matched with a tunnel IA design that guides them through the step-by-step change (see, for example, [38]).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [38] Active Living PartnersHuman Kinetics and The Cooper Institute20042005 Apr 8http://www.activeliving.info/ActiveLiving/demo/demo_osg_welcome.cfm

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: The rationale for using any particular IA design is largely theoretical rather than validated or universally accepted.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    IA designs can have an important role upon the design and likely impact of online behavior change programs.

    “We have highlighted the important role that IA designs can have upon the design and likely impact of online behavior change programs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
52 of 52

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The literature is currently lacking on how much of an Internet-based behavior change intervention's success or lack thereof is due to the website's IA apart from the soundness of the underlying theory and substance of the intervention.

    “While the literature is currently lacking on this issue, a logical place to start is to examine common types of website IA and how these designs might best support behavior change processes.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    There is some optimal ordering and/or dosage of content that is associated with greater effectiveness.

    “Its use assumes that there is some optimal ordering and/or dosage of content that is associated with greater effectiveness.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Best practice approaches drawn from office-based settings will need to be adapted to fit the strengths of Web delivery.

    “It is reasonable to assume, for example, that the best practice approaches drawn from office-based settings (see, for example, [36]) will need to be adapted to fit the strengths of Web delivery.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Little is currently known about how users accommodate the unfamiliar confines of a website based on a tunnel IA design.

    “Little is currently known about how users accommodate the unfamiliar confines of a website based on a tunnel IA design.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is relatively little agreement on how best to use tunnel IA designs.

    “While emerging website design conventions take into consideration matrix or hierarchical designs, there is relatively little agreement on how best to use tunnel IA designs.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The rationale for using any particular IA design is largely theoretical rather than validated or universally accepted.

    “The rationale for using any particular IA design is largely theoretical rather than validated or universally accepted.”
6 of 6

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

1 of the 37 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 10

  1. Bush, Nigel E, 2004, Prev Chronic Dis, 1, A15
  2. Larson, K, 1998, Proceedings of the ACM SIG CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI '98), 21
  3. Bernard, ML, 2004, Criteria for optimal web design (designing for usability): how can I make my website's structure more navigable?
  4. Watson, J, 1998, Society for Technical Communications Mini-Conference
  5. Nielsen, J, 2000, Flash: 99% Bad
  6. Wurman, RS, 2000, Information Anxiety: A Guidebook for the Information Age
  7. US Dept of Health and Human Services, 2005, Spitting in the wind: The facts about dip and chew (SuDoc HE 20.3402:D 62)
  8. Cobb, N, 2005, Nicotine Tob Res, 27, 1
  9. Keppell, M, 2001, Interactive Multimedia Electronic Journal of Computer-Enhanced Learning, 3
  10. Fogg, B J, 2002, Persuasive Technology: Using Computers to Change What We Think and Do

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Danaher, B. G., McKay, H. G., & Seeley, J. R.
Affiliations
Oregon Research Institute (US)
Corresponding author
Danaher, Brian G
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Medical Internet Research
Publisher
JMIR Publications Inc.
Published
2005-05-18
Volume
7
Issue
2
Pages
e12
ISSN
1438-8871 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.2196/jmir.7.2.e12
PMC
PMC1550648
OpenAlex
W2038302816
Cited by
129
References
37
Citations by year
2026: 3 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 1 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 5
FWCI
7.10
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by
Locations
  • Journal of Medical Internet Research (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
National Cancer Institute (R01CA079946, R01-CA79946)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Information Architecture and Usability
  • Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Health Literacy and Information Accessibility
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Usability and User Interface Design
Keywords
information architecture, online intervention, matrix design, tunnel design, hierarchical design, hybrid design, usability, participant engagement, program tailoring, smoking cessation interventions, online course design
MeSH terms
Humans, Information Services, Internet, Behavior Control, Behavioral Research

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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