Metacognition, Hardiness, and Grit as Resilience Factors in Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) Operations: A Simulation Study
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Operators of Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) face a variety of stress factors resulting from both the cognitive demands of the work and its broader social context. Dysfunctional metacognitions including those concerning worry may increase stress vulnerability, whereas personality traits including hardiness and grit may confer resilience. The present study utilized a simulation of UAS operation requiring control of multiple vehicles. Two stressors were manipulated independently in a within-subjects design: cognitive demands and negative evaluative feedback. Stress response was assessed using both subjective measures and a suite of psychophysiological sensors, including the electroencephalogram (EEG), electrocardiogram (ECG), and hemodynamic sensors. Both stress manipulations elevated subjective distress and elicited greater high-frequency activity in the EEG. However, predictors of stress response varied across the two stressors. The Anxious Thoughts Inventory (AnTI: Wells, 1994) was generally associated with higher state worry in both control and stressor conditions. It also predicted stress reactivity indexed by EEG and worry responses in the negative feedback condition. Measures of hardiness and grit were associated with somewhat different patterns of stress response. In addition, within the negative feedback condition, the AnTI meta-worry scale moderated relationships between state worry and objective performance and psychophysiological outcome measures. Under high state worry, AnTI meta-worry was associated with lower frontal oxygen saturation, but higher spectral power in high-frequency EEG bands. High meta-worry may block adaptive compensatory effort otherwise associated with worry. Findings support both the metacognitive theory of anxiety and negative emotions (Wells and Matthews, 2015), and the Trait-Stressor-Outcome (TSO: Matthews et al., 2017a) framework for resilience.
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High operational capabilities and performance during contemporary conflict environments are decisive factors in modern warfare.
“High operational capabilities and performance during contemporary conflict environments characterized by cognitive warfare, uncertainty and unpredictability, including high-intensity, hybrid and information-driven operations, are decisive factors in modern warfare (Matthews et al., 2019; National Research Council, 2015; Smith et al., 2019; Vernon et al., 2007).”
From Enhancement of modern defense capabilities by convergence of cognitive neuroscience and artificial intelligence (2026) · cites this paper as Matthews et al., 2019
The Introduction describes cognitive demands in military UAS operations, and the Results report that increased demand impaired aspects of operator performance. The paper does not establish that operational capability and performance are decisive in modern warfare, or address high-intensity, hybrid, and information-driven conflict as a whole. The passages in our copy have no page numbers. (LLM, conf=0.78)
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Self-citationLi, W., Cheng, S., Dai, J., & Chang, Y. (2025) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.70216 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Havnen, A., Anyan, F., & Nordahl, H. (2024) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.13015 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Kayalar, A., & Hi̇çdurmaz, D. (2024) · European Journal of Oncology Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.ejon.2024.102568 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
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Approach–Avoidance Theories of Personality
Corr, P. J., & Krupıć, D. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.025 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Caprara, G. V., & Vecchione, M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.038 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Conceptual and Historical Perspectives
Cloninger, S. C. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.004 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Psychological and physiological changes during basic, underwater, demolition/SEAL training
Ledford, A. K., Beckner, M. E., Conkright, W. R., Luning, C. R., Dixon, D. P., Miles, P. C., Martin, B. J., Nindl, B. C., & Lynch, S. M. (2022) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2022.113970 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Personality, Preferences and Socioeconomic Behavior
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Temperament and Brain Networks of Attention
Rothbart, M. K., Posner, M. I., & Sheese, B. E. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.016 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Biesanz, J. C., & Wallace, J. D. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.006 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
EEG-Based Assessment of Cognitive Resilience via Interpretable Machine Learning Models
Kakkos, I., Tzavellas, E., Feleskoura, E., Mourtakos, S., Kontopodis, E., Vezakis, I., Κalamatianos, T., Synadinakis, E., Matsopoulos, G. K., Kalatzis, I. K., et al. (2025) · AI · doi:10.3390/ai6060112 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Matthews, G., Hancock, P. A., Szalma, J. L., Lin, J., & Panganiban, A. R. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780192897114.013.25 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationPersonality in Clinical Psychology
Widiger, T. A., & McCabe, G. A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.042 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
States and Situations, Traits and Environments
Asendorpf, J. B., & Rauthmann, J. F. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.007 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Electrophysiological Prints of Grit
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Enhancing Cognitive Resilience in Adolescence and Young Adults: A Multidimensional Approach
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Kalnysh, V. V., Швец, А. В., & Maltsev, O. V. (2024) · Fìzìologìčnij žurnal · doi:10.15407/fz70.02.012 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Personality Traits and Mental Disorders
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Anxiety, Depression and Cognitive Dysfunction
Eysenck, M. W., & Holmes, A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.033 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Salgado, J. F., Anderson, N. R., & Moscoso, S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.040 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Bass, E. J., Amey, R. C., Glavan, J. J., Read, T., Raghunath, N., Sanchez, C. A., Silas, K., Haritos, T., & Adams, J. A. (2022) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/1071181322661055 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Adaptación del cuestionario de personalidad resistente en población mexicana
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Models of Personality Structure
Raad, B. D., & Barelds, D. P. H. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.012 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Cognitive Processes and Models
Matthews, G. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.028 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationBasic Needs, Goals and Motivation
Szalma, J. L. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.030 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Personality in Cross-Cultural Perspective
Dragūns, J. G., & Tanaka‐Matsumi, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.037 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Narrative Identity in the Social World
McLean, K. C., Syed, M., Haraldsson, K. G., & Lowe, L. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.035 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Lynam, D. R., Vize, C. E., & Miller, J. D. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.043 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Jayawickreme, E., & Zachry, C. E. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.032 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.020 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Measuring emotional variables in occupational performance: A scoping review
Park, H., Kim, J., Jo, S., Kim, H., Jo, Y., Kim, S., & Yoo, I. (2022) · Work · doi:10.3233/wor-205162 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Karnaze, M. M., Kious, B. M., Feuerman, L. Z., Classen, S. A., Robinson, J. O., Bloss, C. S., & McGuire, A. L. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1016337 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Cognitive Agility and Mental Resilience: Preparing Leaders for Future Challenges
-, Y. R. (2024) · Journal of Advanced Research in Leadership · doi:10.33422/jarl.v2i2.610 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Models of Physical Health and Personality
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Cosic, K., Kuljanac, A., & Palermo, S. (2026) · Frontiers in psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1821242 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…conflict environments characterized by cognitive warfare, uncertainty and unpredictability, including high-intensity, hybrid and information-driven operations, are decisive factors in modern warfare (Matthews et al., 2019; National Research Council, 2015; Smith et al., 2019; Vernon et al., 2007).”
Cognitive biotypes identified through ECG-derived workload and behavioral accuracy
Conklin, S. M., Kargosha, G., Tu, J., Bansal, K., Dang, Q., Brooks, J., & Kucukosmanoglu, M. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-026-37107-8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Wearable ECG and PPG for anxiety detection: a translational digital medicine perspective
Elgendi, M., Elkhalifa, A., Alhashmi, N., Aldahmani, A., Aljneibi, N., Alamro, D., Jelinek, H. F., Khandoker, A. H., & Ward, R. K. (2026) · npj Digital Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41746-026-02620-7 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Sallis, H., Smith, G. D., & Munafo, M. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.024 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-Regulation and Control in Personality Functioning
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.029 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Pashkovskyi, S. M., Serheta, I. V., Kalnysh, V. V., Koval, N. V., Bohush, H. L., Tymchyshyn, T. P., & Iskiv, L. L. (2024) · Clinical and Preventive Medicine · doi:10.31612/2616-4868.3.2024.04 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Personality in Nonhuman Animals
Bell, A. M., & Bensky, M. K. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.023 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Weiß, A., & Deary, I. J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.005 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Personality and the Unconscious
Perugini, M., Richetin, J., & Costantini, G. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.008 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Adaptación del cuestionario de personalidad resistente en población mexicana
Lara, R. M. M., Yeo-Ayala, C., Juárez-Rodríguez, P., Chávez, A. P., & Jiménez, B. M. (2021) · Pensando Psicología · doi:10.16925/2382-3984.2021.01.02 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Corr, P. J., & Matthews, G. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.001 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationAddendum: Statistical Analyses and Computer Programming in Personality
Corr, P. J., & Matthews, G. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.045 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationPersonality Assessment Methods
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Schermer, J. A., & Saklofske, D. H. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.014
Social Relations and Social Support
Austin, E. Q., Knack, J. M., Jensen‐Campbell, L. A., & Rex‐Lear, M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.036
Corr, P. J., & Matthews, G. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.002
Self-citationSocio-demographic characteristics as predictors of psychosocial resources of call centre agents
Harry, N. (2022) · Journal of Psychology in Africa · doi:10.1080/14330237.2022.2028074
Enhancing Cognitive Resilience in Adolescence and Young Adults: A Neuroscience-informed ApproachPreprint
Rezapour, T., Assari, S., Kirlić, N., Vassileva, J., & Ekhtiari, H. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/enrv9
Corr, P. J., & Matthews, G. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.046
Self-citationMetakognitiv kunnskap om hukommelse og arbeidsevne: En replikasjon og stringent test
Nordahl, H., Vollset, T., & Hjemdal, O. (2022) · Tidsskrift for Norsk psykologforening · doi:10.52734/2l8m6g9f
Measures of Attention in Autonomous and Semi-Autonomous Multi-Vehicle Supervision
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Cognitive Agility and Mental Resilience: Preparing Leaders for Future Challenges
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Tiwari, A., Arrabito, R., Davoust, A., & Falk, T. H. (2026) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-30015-7_9
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- Authors
- Matthews, G., Panganiban, A. R., Wells, A., Wohleber, R. W., & Reinerman-Jones, L. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Central Florida (US)
- United States Air Force Research Laboratory (US)
- Corresponding author
- Matthews, Gerald
- Venue
- Frontiers in Psychology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2019-03-26
- Volume
- 10
- Pages
- 640-640
- ISSN
- 1664-1078 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6443855
- OpenAlex
- W2922987859
- Cited by
- 85
- References
- 85
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 17.98
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Army Research Laboratory
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Stress and Burnout Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Resilience and Mental Health
- Keywords
- metacognition, hardiness, grit, resilience, unmanned aerial systems, occupational stress, cognitive demand, meta-worry, stress reactivity
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