Why does cognitive training yield inconsistent benefits? A meta-analysis of individual differences in baseline cognitive abilities and training outcomes
Open accessAbstract
Despite growing interest in improving cognitive abilities across the lifespan through training, the benefits of cognitive training are inconsistent. One powerful contributor may be that individuals arrive at interventions with different baseline levels of the cognitive skill being trained. Some evidence suggests poor performers benefit the most from cognitive training, showing compensation for their weak abilities, while other evidence suggests that high performers benefit most, experiencing a magnification of their abilities. Whether training leads to compensation or magnification effects may depend upon the specific cognitive domain being trained (such as executive function or episodic memory) and the training approach implemented (strategy or process). To clarify the association between individual differences in baseline cognitive ability and training gains as well as potential moderators, we conducted a systematic meta-analysis of the correlation between these two variables. We found evidence of a significant meta-correlation demonstrating a compensatory effect, a negative association between initial ability on a trained cognitive process and training gains. Too few papers met our search criteria across the levels of proposed moderators of cognitive domain and training approach to conduct a reliable investigation of their influence over the meta-analytic effect size. We discuss the implications of a compensatory meta-correlation, potential reasons for the paucity of qualifying papers, and important future directions for better understanding how cognitive trainings work and for whom.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Individuals with lower baseline cognitive ability demonstrate greater performance gains following cognitive training compared to those with higher baseline cognitive ability.
“For instance, individuals with lower baseline cognitive ability demonstrate greater performance gains following cognitive training compared to those with higher baseline cognitive ability, potentially due to a sufficient “mismatch” between the task demand and functional supply of the brain [68–72].”
From Primary outcome from the augmenting cognitive training in older adults study (ACT): A tDCS and cognitive training randomized clinical trial (2023) · cites this paper as [69]
The Results (§3.2.2; page not available in our copy) report a significant negative correlation: lower baseline performers tended to gain more from training. But the authors call the result inconclusive and report substantial heterogeneity, so the unqualified claim is stronger than their finding. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test
Egger, M., Smith, G. D., Schneider, M., & Minder, C. (1997) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629 · Cited by 56,722 · see citing works
Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta‐analysis
Higgins, J. P. T., & Thompson, S. G. (2002) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.1186 · Cited by 36,763 · see citing works
Dermyshi, E., Wang, Y., Yan, C., Hong, W., Qiu, G., Gong, X., & Zhang, T. (2017) · Neonatology · doi:10.1159/000454668 · Cited by 24,577 · see citing works
Conducting Meta-Analyses in <i>R</i> with the <b>metafor</b> Package
Viechtbauer, W. (2010) · Journal of Statistical Software · doi:10.18637/jss.v036.i03 · Cited by 20,464 · see citing works
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 · Cited by 15,798 · see citing works
Liberati, A., Altman, D. G., Tetzlaff, J., Mulrow, C., Gøtzsche, P. C., Ioannidis, J. P. A., Clarke, M., Devereaux, P. J., Kleijnen, J., & Moher, D. (2009) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2009.06.006 · Cited by 10,578 · see citing works
Sterne, J. A. C., Sutton, A. J., Ioannidis, J. P. A., Terrin, N., Jones, D. R., Lau, J., Carpenter, J., Rucker, G., Harbord, R. M., Schmid, C. H., et al. (2011) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.d4002 · Cited by 7,709 · see citing works
A basic introduction to fixed-effect and random-effects models for meta-analysis
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2010) · Research Synthesis Methods · doi:10.1002/jrsm.12 · Cited by 6,793 · see citing works
Miyake, A., & Friedman, N. P. (2012) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721411429458 · Cited by 3,944 · see citing works
Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old
Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1204529 · Cited by 2,901 · see citing works
Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory
Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., & Perrig, W. J. (2008) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0801268105 · Cited by 2,187 · see citing works
Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review
Melby-Lervåg, M., & Hulme, C. (2013) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028228 · Cited by 1,782 · see citing works
Cheung, M. W.-L. (2014) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/a0032968 · Cited by 1,342 · see citing works
Fitting three-level meta-analytic models in R: A step-by-step tutorial
Assink, M., & Wibbelink, C. J. M. (2016) · The Quantitative Methods for Psychology · doi:10.20982/tqmp.12.3.p154 · Cited by 1,330 · see citing works
Do “brain-training” programs work?
Simons, D. J., Boot, W. R., Charness, N., Gathercole, S. E., Chabris, C. F., Hambrick, D. Z., & Stine-Morrow, E. A. L. (2016) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100616661983 · Cited by 1,183 · see citing works
Three-level meta-analysis of dependent effect sizes
Van den Noortgate, W., López-López, J. A., Marín-Martínez, F., & Sánchez-Meca, J. (2013) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-012-0261-6 · Cited by 1,130 · see citing works
Training, maturation, and genetic influences on the development of executive attention
Rueda, M. R., Rothbart, M. K., McCandliss, B. D., Saccomanno, L., & Posner, M. I. (2005) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0506897102 · Cited by 1,110 · see citing works
Is working memory training effective?
Shipstead, Z., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2012) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0027473 · Cited by 1,101 · see citing works
Methodological issues and advances in biological meta-analysis
Nakagawa, S., & Santos, E. S. A. (2012) · Evolutionary Ecology · doi:10.1007/s10682-012-9555-5 · Cited by 1,032 · see citing works
Melby-Lervåg, M., Redick, T. S., & Hulme, C. (2016) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691616635612 · Cited by 910 · see citing works
Activities and Programs That Improve Children’s Executive Functions
Diamond, A. (2012) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721412453722 · Cited by 750 · see citing works
(2011) · Cited by 725 · see citing works
Aging, Training, and the Brain: A Review and Future Directions
Lustig, C., Shah, P., Seidler, R. D., & Reuter‐Lorenz, P. A. (2009) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-009-9119-9 · Cited by 684 · see citing works
Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: a meta-analysis
Au, J., Sheehan, E., Tsai, N., Duncan, G. J., Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2015) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-014-0699-x · Cited by 671 · cited 2× · see citing works
“This variation among findings is welldocumented and presents serious problems for determining the true effectiveness or utility of cognitive training in both clinical and research contexts (Shipstead et al., 2012; MelbyLervåg and Hulme, 2013; von Bastian and Oberauer, 2014; Au et al., 2015; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016;…”
BackgroundBoot, W. R., Simons, D. J., Stothart, C., & Stutts, C. (2013) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691613491271 · Cited by 670 · see citing works
Changes in executive control across the life span: Examination of task-switching performance.
Cepeda, N. J., Kramer, A. F., & Gonzalez de Sather, J. C. M. (2001) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.37.5.715 · Cited by 657 · see citing works
Fixed effects and variance components estimation in three-level meta-analysis
Konstantopoulos, S. (2011) · Research Synthesis Methods · doi:10.1002/jrsm.35 · Cited by 521 · see citing works
Improving memory performance in the aged through mnemonic training: A meta-analytic study.
Verhaeghen, P., Marcoen, A., & Goossens, L. (1992) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.7.2.242 · Cited by 507 · see citing works
Toward a More Nuanced Understanding of the Statistical Properties of a Median Split
Iacobucci, D., Posavac, S. S., Kardes, F. R., Schneider, M. J., & Popovich, D. (2015) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2014.12.002 · Cited by 483 · see citing works
Psychology and the real world: Essays illustrating fundamental contributions to society.
Gernsbacher, M. A., Pew, R. W., Hough, L. M., & Pomerantz, J. R. (2011) · Cited by 460 · see citing works
The role of individual differences in cognitive training and transfer
Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Shah, P., & Jonides, J. (2014) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-013-0364-z · Cited by 432 · see citing works
Working memory training improves reading processes in typically developing children.
Loosli, S. V., Buschkuehl, M., Perrig, W. J., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2012) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2011.575772 · Cited by 365 · see citing works
Effects and mechanisms of working memory training: a review
von Bastian, C. C., & Oberauer, K. (2014) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-013-0524-6 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Analysis of Pretest-Posttest Designs
Bonate, P. L. (2000) · Chapman & Hall/CRC eBooks · doi:10.1201/9781420035926 · Cited by 305 · see citing works
Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence
Karbach, J., & Unger, K. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00390 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
Aptitude-treatment interaction as a framework for research on individual differences in learning.
Snow, R. E. (1989) · Cited by 267 · see citing works
Effects of working memory training on reading in children with special needs
Dahlin, K. I. E. (2011) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-010-9238-y · Cited by 263 · see citing works
Zinke, K., Zeintl, M., Rose, N. S., Putzmann, J., Pydde, A., & Kliegel, M. (2014) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0032982 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
Plasticity of memory for new learning in very old age: A story of major loss?
Singer, T., Lindenberger, U., & Baltes, P. B. (2003) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.18.2.306 · Cited by 240 · see citing works
Working memory training in typically developing children: A meta-analysis of the available evidence.
Sala, G., & Gobet, F. (2017) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000265 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Failure of Working Memory Training to Enhance Cognition or Intelligence
Thompson, T. W., Waskom, M. L., Garel, K.-L. A., Cardenas-Iniguez, C., Reynolds, G. O., Winter, R., Chang, P., Pollard, K., Lala, N., Alvarez, G. A., et al. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0063614 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
On the locus and process of magnification of age differences during mnemonic training.
Kliegl, R. M., Smith, J., & Baltes, P. B. (1990) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.26.6.894 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Adaptive working-memory training benefits reading, but not mathematics in middle childhood
Karbach, J., Strobach, T., & Schubert, T. (2015) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2014.899336 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Memory plasticity across the life span: Uncovering children's latent potential.
Brehmer, Y., Li, S.-C., Müller, V., von Oertzen, T., & Lindenberger, U. (2007) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.2.465 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Training-induced compensation versus magnification of individual differences in memory performance
Lövdén, M., Brehmer, Y., Li, S., & Lindenberger, U. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00141 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Katz, B., Jaeggi, S., Buschkuehl, M., Stegman, A., & Shah, P. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00242 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Distinct transfer effects of training different facets of working memory capacity.
von Bastian, C. C., & Oberauer, K. (2013) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2013.02.002 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Bürki, C. N., Ludwig, C., Chicherio, C., & de Ribaupierre, A. (2014) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-014-0559-3 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Fernández-Castilla, B., Declercq, L., Jamshidi, L., Beretvas, S. N., Onghena, P., & den Noortgate, W. V. (2020) · Methodology · doi:10.5964/meth.4013 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Vermeij, A., Kessels, R. P. C., Heskamp, L., Simons, E. M. F., DAUTZENBERG, P. L. J., & Claassen, J. A. H. R. (2016) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-016-9508-7 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
On the validity and generality of transfer effects in cognitive training research
Noack, H., Lövdén, M., & Schmiedek, F. (2014) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-014-0564-6 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Stepankova, H., Lukavsky, J., Buschkuehl, M., Kopecek, M., Ripova, D., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2014) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0034913 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Borella, E., Carbone, E., Pastore, M., Béni, R. D., & Carretti, B. (2017) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00099 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Potentials and Limits of Plasticity Induced by Working Memory Training in Old-Old Age
Zinke, K., Zeintl, M., Eschen, A., Herzog, C., & Kliegel, M. (2011) · Gerontology · doi:10.1159/000324240 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Karbach, J., Könen, T., & Spengler, M. (2017) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-017-0054-z · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Working memory updating and binding training: Bayesian evidence supporting the absence of transfer.
De Simoni, C., & von Bastian, C. C. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/xge0000453 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Cognitive training and selective attention in the aging brain: An electrophysiological study
O’Brien, J. L., Edwards, J. D., Maxfield, N. D., Peronto, C. L., Williams, V., & Lister, J. J. (2013) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2013.05.012 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Training executive function in preschoolers reduce externalizing behaviors
Volckaert, A., & Noël, M. (2015) · Trends in Neuroscience and Education · doi:10.1016/j.tine.2015.02.001 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Do the effects of working memory training depend on baseline ability level?
Foster, J. L., Harrison, T. L., Hicks, K. L., Draheim, C., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000426 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Guye, S., Simoni, C. D., & von Bastian, C. C. (2017) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-017-0049-9 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Segretin, M. S., Lipina, S. J., Hermida, M. J., Sheffield, T. D., Nelson, J. M., Espy, K. A., & Colombo, J. A. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00205 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
To Be Young, Gifted, and Strategic: Advantages for Memory Performance
Gaultney, J. F., Bjorklund, D. F., & Goldstein, D. (1996) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1006/jecp.1996.0002 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Exploring <i>N</i> -Back Cognitive Training for Children With ADHD
Jones, M. R., Katz, B., Buschkuehl, M., Jaeggi, S. M., & Shah, P. (2020) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054718779230 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Nunes, E. V., Pavlicová, M., Hu, M., Campbell, A. N. C., Miele, G. M., Hien, D. A., & Klein, D. F. (2011) · The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse · doi:10.3109/00952990.2011.596980 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Chevalier, N., Chatham, C. H., & Munakata, Y. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0035868 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Self-citationBrain Training in Children and Adolescents: Is It Scientifically Valid?
Rossignoli-Palomeque, T., Pérez-Hernández, E., & González-Marqués, J. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00565 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
The Influence of Individual Differences in Cognitive Ability on Working Memory Training Gains
Wiemers, E. A., Redick, T. S., & Morrison, A. B. (2019) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-018-0111-2 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Tidwell, J. W., Dougherty, M. R., Chrabaszcz, J. R., Thomas, R. P., & Mendoza, J. L. (2014) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-013-0560-7 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Evaluating the Effectiveness of Commercial Brain Game Training with Working-Memory Tasks
Strobach, T., & Huestegge, L. (2017) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-017-0053-0 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Training working memory updating in Parkinson’s disease: A randomised controlled trial
Fellman, D., Salmi, J., Ritakallio, L., Ellfolk, U., Rinne, J. O., & Laine, M. (2018) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2018.1489860 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
My Command, My Act: Observation Inflation in Face-To-Face Interactions
Pfister, R., Schwarz, K. A., Wirth, R., & Lindner, I. (2017) · Advances in Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.5709/acp-0217-7 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Most evidence for the compensation account of cognitive training is unreliable
Smoleń, T., Jastrzębski, J., Estrada, E., & Chuderski, A. (2018) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-018-0839-z · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Predicting Response of Older Adults to Mnemonic Training: Who Will Benefit?
McKitrick, L. A., Friedman, L., Brooks, J. O., Pearman, A. M., KRAEMER, H. C., & Yesavage, J. A. (1999) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610299005852 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Predictors of Effective Working Memory Training in Individuals with Alcohol Use Disorders
Gunn, R. L., Gerst, K. R., Wiemers, E. A., Redick, T. S., & Finn, P. (2018) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.13892 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Hering, A., Meuleman, B., Bürki, C. N., Borella, E., & Kliegel, M. (2017) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-017-0041-4 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Children's Use of Mnemonic Strategies: Variability in Response to Metamemory Training
Cox, B. D. (1994) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.1994.9914792 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Weicker, J., Hudl, N., Frisch, S., Lepsien, J., Mueller, K., Villringer, A., & Thöne-Otto, A. I. T. (2018) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2018.00247 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Visuospatial working memory training facilitates visually-aided explicit sequence learning
Chan, J. S. Y., Wu, Q., Liang, D., & Yan, J. H. (2015) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2015.09.008 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
de Vries, M., Verdam, M. G. E., Prins, P. J. M., Schmand, B. A., & Geurts, H. M. (2017) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361316682622 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Externalizing Behavior Problems in Preschoolers: Impact of an Inhibition Training
Volckaert, A., & Noël, M. (2017) · Journal of Psychological Abnormalities · doi:10.4172/2471-9900.1000154 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
van der Donk, M. L. A., van Viersen, S., Hiemstra‐Beernink, A., Kalff, A. C., van der Leij, A., & Lindauer, R. (2017) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3327 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Fu, L., Maes, J. H. R., Kessels, R. P. C., & Daselaar, S. M. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0174217 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Hickey, A. J. (2018) · uO Research (University of Ottawa) · doi:10.20381/ruor-21886 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- Chooi W. T. (2011). Improving intelligence by increasing working memory capacity (Electronic Thesis or Dissertation). Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH. Retrieved from: https://etd.ohiolink.edu/
- Lipsey M. W. Wilson D. B. (2001). Applied social research methods series, Vol. 49. Practical Meta-Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
- Tulving E. (1972). Episodic and Semantic Memory [w:] E. Tulving, W. Donaldson (Red.), Organisation of Memory (s. 381–403). New York, NY: Academic Press.
- Vygotsky L. (1978). Interaction between learning and development, in Mind in Society: The development of higher psychological processes, eds M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, and E. Souberman (Cambridge: Harvard University Press).
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Video Game Design for Learning to Learn
Pasqualotto, A., Parong, J. A., Green, C. S., & Bavelier, D. (2022) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2022.2110684 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Niebaum, J. C., & Munakata, Y. (2022) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248372.2022.2160723 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Self-citationCognitive flexibility training for impact in real-world settings
Lee, L. Y., Healy, M. P., Fischer, N. L., Tong, K., Chen, S. A., Sahakian, B. J., & Kourtzi, Z. (2024) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2024.101413 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Nicastri, C. M., McFeeley, B. M., Simon, S. S., Ledreux, A., Håkansson, K., Granholm, A., Mohammed, A. H. S., & Daffner, K. R. (2022) · Alzheimer s & Dementia Translational Research & Clinical Interventions · doi:10.1002/trc2.12337 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Li, Z., He, H., Chen, Y., & Guan, Q. (2024) · Age and Ageing · doi:10.1093/ageing/afad247 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Vernucci, S., Juric, L. C., & Richard’s, M. M. (2022) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-022-01647-1 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Mack, M., Stojan, R., Bock, O. L., & Voelcker‐Rehage, C. (2022) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-022-03201-5 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Kim, Y., Kang, Y., Kim, B. R., Kim, J., & Kim, G. H. (2024) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2024.2362406 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Long-term cognitive training enhances fluid cognition and brain connectivity in individuals with MCI
Gozdas, E., Avelar-Pereira, B., Fingerhut, H., Dacorro, L., Jo, B., Williams, L. M., O’Hara, R., & Hosseini, S. M. H. (2024) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-024-03153-x · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Matsuzaki, Y., Nouchi, R., Sakaki, K., Dinet, J., & Kawashima, R. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11060843 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
de Lima-Júnior, D. R. A. A., Silva, D. C., Ferreira, M. E. C., & Fortes, L. D. S. (2023) · Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports · doi:10.1111/sms.14457 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Hausman, H. K., Alexander, G. E., Cohen, R., Marsiske, M., DeKosky, S. T., Hishaw, G. A., O'Shea, A., Kraft, J. N., Dai, Y., Wu, S., et al. (2023) · Brain Stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2023.05.021 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Cognitive remediation for depression vulnerability: Current challenges and new directions
Zwalmen, Y. V., Hoorelbeke, K., Liebaert, E., de Mévergnies, C. N., & Koster, E. H. W. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.903446 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Chan, A. S.-Y., Leung, P., Pang, T. W.-Y., & Sze, S. L. (2024) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.3238 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Relative effectiveness of general versus specific cognitive training for aging adults.
Gray, N., Yoon, J., Charness, N. H., Boot, W. R., Roque, N. A., Andringa, R., Harrell, E. R., Lewis, K. G., & Vitale, T. (2021) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000663 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Wards, Y., Ehrhardt, S. E., Filmer, H. L., Mattingley, J. B., Garner, K., & Dux, P. E. (2023) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhad406 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Nordby, E. S., Guribye, F., Schønning, V., Andersen, S. L., Kuntsi, J., & Lundervold, A. J. (2024) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/53931 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Investigating the Role of Individual Differences in Adherence to Cognitive Training
Tullo, D., Feng, Y., Pahor, A., Cote, J. M., Seitz, A. R., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2023) · Journal of Cognition · doi:10.5334/joc.315 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Kazinka, R., Roediger, D. J., Xuan, L., Yu, L., Mueller, B. A., Camchong, J., Opitz, A., MacDonald, A. W., & Lim, K. O. (2024) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2024.120792 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Bernini, S., Gerbasi, A., Panzarasa, S., Quaglini, S., Ramusino, M. C., Costa, A. C., Avenali, M., Tassorelli, C., Vecchi, T., & Bottiroli, S. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-26924-2 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Zuber, S., Joly-Burra, E., Mahy, C. E. V., Loaiza, V. M., & Kliegel, M. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105602 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Executive functioning profiles and mathematical and reading achievement in Grades 2, 6, and 10
Carriedo, N., Rodríguez‐Villagra, O. A., Pérez, L., & Iglesias-Sarmiento, V. (2024) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2024.101353 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Effects of one session of theta or high alpha neurofeedback on EEG activity and working memory
Chikhi, S., Matton, N., Sanna, M., & Blanchet, S. (2024) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-024-01218-4 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Menu, I., Rezende, G., Stanc, L. L., Borst, G., & Cachia, A. (2022) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2022.101231 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Transparency in Cognitive Training Meta-analyses: A Meta-review
Sandoval‐Lentisco, A., López‐Nicolás, R., Tortajada, M., López-López, J. A., & Sánchez‐Meca, J. (2024) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-024-09638-2 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Richter, T., Shani, R., Tal, S., Derakshan, N., Cohen, N., Enock, P. M., McNally, R. J., Mor, N., Daches, S., Williams, A. D., et al. (2025) · npj Digital Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41746-025-01449-w · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Zhang, T., Zheng, J., Tao, J., Xu, Y., Zhang, X., Chen, C., Liao, D., & Li, X. (2025) · PM&R · doi:10.1002/pmrj.13419 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Izhak, S. B., & Michal Lavidor, B. (2023) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248372.2023.2172413 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Olegário, R. L., Fernandes, S. R., & de Moraes, R. (2023) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2023.2267610 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Li, J., Huang, Z., Feng, X., & Liu, Y. (2025) · Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.ctcp.2025.102016 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Strickland-Hughes, C. M., & West, R. L. (2022) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci12040465 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
The relation between effortful control and executive function training in preschoolers
Dong, P., Li, W., Hu, Q., Wu, T., Jiang, Y., Jin, H. C., Xu, C., Buschkuehl, M., Jaeggi, S. M., & Zhang, Q. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105778 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Câmara, J., Ferreira, L., Faria, A. L., Vilar, M., & Badia, S. B. I. (2022) · Games for Health Journal · doi:10.1089/g4h.2021.0228 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Positive affect disrupts neurodegeneration effects on cognitive training plasticity in older adults
Anthony, M., Turnbull, A. G., Tadin, D., & Lin, F. V. (2024) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsae004 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
The effects of cognitive training on driving performance
Tapia, J. L., Sánchez-Borda, D., & Duñabeitia, J. A. (2024) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-024-01245-6 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Chuang, I., Abdullahi, A., Chen, I.-C., Wu, Y., & Wu, C. (2025) · Digital Health · doi:10.1177/20552076251328491 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Zhang, L., Gao, S., Wang, C., Li, Y., Yuan, H., Cao, L., & Gao, C. (2024) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2024.1378731 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Gaillard, S. D. M., & Devin, S. (2022) · Journal of Trial and Error · doi:10.36850/ed3 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Executive Functions and Academic Performance: The Moderating Role of Distress Tolerance
Andrés, M. L., Juric, L. C., Coni, A. G., Olsen, C. D., Vernucci, S., Galli, J. I., Introzzi, I. M., & Richaud, M. C. (2022) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/mbe.12330 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Immersive competence as a source of bias in virtual reality clinical assessment
Schaal, J., Leutritz, T., Lindner, M., Zamzow, A., Backhaus, J., Koenig, S., & Mühling, T. (2026) · npj Digital Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41746-026-02482-z · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Unicorn, Hare, or Tortoise? Using Machine Learning to Predict Working Memory Training Performance
Feng, Y., Pahor, A., Seitz, A. R., Barbour, D. L., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2023) · Journal of Cognition · doi:10.5334/joc.319 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Can perception be extended to a “feel of north”? Tests of automaticity with the NaviEar
Witzel, C., Lübbert, A., O'Regan, J. K., Hanneton, S., & Schumann, F. (2022) · Adaptive Behavior · doi:10.1177/10597123221130235 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Vafa, S., Thanaraju, A., Chan, J. K., Harris, H. A., Chan, X. W., Todi, K., Arokiaraj, A. S., Chia, Y. C., Jenkins, M. A., & Marzuki, A. A. (2025) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12651 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Computer-based cognitive training for pediatric cancer survivors: a systematic review
Liu, T., Tadesse, E., Yao, J., Yu, J., Yuan, S., Xu, L., & Mo, L. (2026) · BMC Pediatrics · doi:10.1186/s12887-026-06766-x · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Tolonen, T., Leppämäki, S., Roine, T., Alho, K., Tani, P., Koski, A., Laine, M., & Salmi, J. (2024) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2024.103696 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Tackling cognitive decline in late adulthood: Cognitive interventions
von Bastian, C. C., Hyde, E. R. A., & Jiang, S. (2023) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101780 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Traut, H. J., Chevalier, N., Guild, R. M., & Munakata, Y. (2021) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13614 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationJiao, M., Ding, Z., Huang, C., Xu, Y., 钟宝亮, & Chen, H. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs16010040 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Tagliabue, C. F., Varesio, G., & Mazza, V. (2022) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-022-02580-6 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Everyday forgetfulness and memory complaints: A randomized controlled cognitive intervention study
Montenegro-Peña, M., Carrasco, P. M., Montes, M. E. D. A., Marín, A. G., Rubio, B. M., & Crespo, D. P. (2024) · Educational Gerontology · doi:10.1080/03601277.2024.2382542 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Carrasco, P. M., Montenegro-Peña, M., Crespo, D. P., Rodríguez‐Rojo, I. C., Barabash, A., Rubio, B. M., Dolado, A. M., Maestú, F., & Delgado‐Losada, M. L. (2024) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-024-01202-3 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Sankalaite, S., Pollé, S., Huizinga, M., der Oord, S. V., Rakickienė, L., & Baeyens, D. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15101379 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Las funciones ejecutivas y la salud mental en el contexto educativo
de Miguel, J. F. (2024) · Estudios sobre Educación · doi:10.15581/004.49.005 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Davey, D. K., Caudle, M. M., Hoffman, S. N., Jak, A. J., Bomyea, J. A., & Crocker, L. D. (2024) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291724003106 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Can perception be extended to a “feel of North”? Tests of automaticity with the NaviEarPreprint
Witzel, C., Lübbert, A., Schumann, F., Hanneton, S., & O'Regan, J. K. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/2yk8b · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Enhancing Multiple Object Analysis Skills Across Early and Late Adulthood Through Diverse Tasks
Tagliabue, C. F., Fornari, C., Varesio, G., & Mazza, V. (2024) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-024-00295-0 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Developmental and behavioral phenotypic outcomes associated with Tubulinopathy conditions
Fidler, D. J., Deusen, K. V., & Cushion, T. D. (2024) · International review of research in developmental disabilities · doi:10.1016/bs.irrdd.2024.09.009 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
L’Abbate, T., Dimitriou, N., Dimakopoulos, G., Tecchio, F., & Nasios, G. (2025) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci15080807 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Taylor, P., Harris, D., & Aidman, E. (2025) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su17177845 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Caetano, T., Pinho, M. S., Ramadas, E., Freire-Santos, F., & Dixe, M. D. A. (2025) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1653783 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Cognitive training shapes brain plasticity and schematic representations
Chen, W., & Hao, Y. (2025) · Behavioral and Brain Functions · doi:10.1186/s12993-025-00300-2 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Singh, G. K., Mishra, J., Bajaj, M. K., Gupta, M., & Jaswal, V. (2025) · Journal of Contemporary Behavioural and Social Research · doi:10.4103/jcbsr.jcbsr_25_25 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Scotti, G., Caprara, G., Penserini, C., Titta, L., Cuccarini, V., Berlingeri, M., & Rosazza, C. (2026) · Aging Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1007/s40520-026-03362-y · Cited by 1 · see citing works
León-Correa, E., Ruhnau, P., Balani, A. B., Qureshi, A., Tse, D., & Makris, S. (2026) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-026-01408-2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Zhao, X., Wu, W., Zhang, Q., Ouyang, M., Luo, H., Yu, Q., Mai, Y., Cao, Z., Yang, S., Xu, M., et al. (2026) · The Journal of Prevention of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.1016/j.tjpad.2026.100582 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Hardcastle, C., Kraft, J. N., Hausman, H. K., O’Shea, A. M., Albizu, A., Evangelista, N. D., Boutzoukas, E. M., Etten, E. J. V., Bharadwaj, P. K., Song, H., et al. (2024) · GeroScience · doi:10.1007/s11357-024-01115-1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Hohl, R., de Oliveira, R. M., Gonçalves, S. S., Sá, P. M. K., & Shigaeff, N. (2025) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.1177/00315125251338644 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Inhibitory Processing Training During Childhood
Aydmune, Y. S., Introzzi, I. M., Olaechea, M. C., & López-Ramón, M. F. (2022) · Advances in psychology, mental health, and behavioral studies (APMHBS) book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-9075-1.ch003 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Zhou, X., Ai, M., Adeli, E., Zhang, Y., Liu, Y. M., & Lin, F. V. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2025.12.30.697042 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Intervenciones cognitivas en niños y niñas: aportes desde el marco de la diversidad del desarrollo
Giovannetti, F. (2022) · APUNTES DE PSICOLOGÍA · doi:10.55414/ap.v41i1.920
Classification Of MeMory InTerventions: Rationale and developmental process of the COMMIT tool
Jansen, M. G., Oosterman, J. M., Folkerts, A., Chakraverty, D., Kessels, R. P. C., Kalbe, E., & Roheger, M. (2023) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2023.2236346
Can teachers learn online? – evidence from Armenia during the COVID-19 pandemic
Hovanessian, N., Minasyan, G., Nurbekyan, A., Polborn, M. K., & Polborn, T. (2023) · Education Economics · doi:10.1080/09645292.2023.2273224
Yanaoka, K., Wout, F. V. ‘., Saito, S., & Jarrold, C. (2024) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218241246189
Brasser, M., Frühholz, S., Schneeberger, A. R., Trevor, C., Ruschetti, G. G., Held, F. E., Häner, M., & Studer-Luethi, B. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2024.100805 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Kavčič, Z. M., Kavcic, V., Giordani, B., & Marušič, U. (2024) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app14156470 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Vernucci, S., Juric, L. C., Aydmune, Y. S., Stelzer, F., & Burín, D. I. (2024) · Anuario de Psicología/The UB Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1344/anpsic2024.54.2.1
León-Correa, E., Ruhnau, P., Balani, A. B., Qureshi, A., Tse, D., & Makris, S. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.02.19.639019
Seiffer, B., & Wolf, S. (2025) · German Journal of Exercise and Sport Research · doi:10.1007/s12662-025-01032-1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Mack, M., Stojan, R., Hudl, N., Bock, O. L., & Voelcker‐Rehage, C. (2025) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-6185287/v1
Impact of Neurocognitive Training on Cognitive Flexibility: A Data-Driven Study on College StudentsPreprint
Khatwani, M., & Talukdar, K. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5352159
Understanding Humour in the Cognitive Resource Structure of Academically Successful Students
Кибальченко, И. А., & Eksakusto, T. V. (2025) · International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science Engineering and Education · doi:10.23947/2334-8496-2025-13-2-455-480
Telerehabilitation of executive functions after paediatric stroke: A feasibility study
Rivella, C., Zanetti, A., Bertamino, M., Primavera, L., Tacchino, C. M., & Viterbori, P. (2025) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2025.2590642
Gaál, Z. A., Kojouharova, P., Nagy, B., van der Wijk, G., Czigler, I., & Protzner, A. B. (2025) · GeroScience · doi:10.1007/s11357-025-02039-0
Chen, S., Li, Q., Wang, Y., & Wan, Q. (2026) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.106279
Xing, S., Yuan, Y., Ren, P., Chen, Z., & Fu, Y. (2026) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2026.116078
Hindman, S., King, R., & Pereira, A. (2026) · Learning in Context · doi:10.1016/j.lecon.2026.100019
Gaze Strategy Adaptation in VR Multitasking Training: Links to Task Performance and EEG
Qiao, H., & Iramina, K. (2026) · Advanced Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.14326/abe.15.128
Vargek, P., Karakatič, S., & Bakračevič, K. (2026) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence14040056
Jiang, H., Johnstone, S. J., Li, Y. Y., Lu, J., & Mao, B.-B. (2026) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-026-00415-9
Johansen, T., Matre, M., Løvstad, M., Olsen, A., Lund, A., Martinsen, A. C. T., Becker, F., Brunborg, C., Ponsford, J. L., & Tornås, S. (2026) · Disability and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09638288.2026.2663968
Zwalmen, Y. V., Vrijsen, J. N., Meuleman, B., Vanderhasselt, M., Naarding, P., Collard, R. M., Beek, M. H. C. T. V., Oostelbos, P., Bolier, L., van Driel, D. T. J. W., et al. (2026) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2026.100951
Al‐Beltagi, M. (2026) · World Journal of Clinical Pediatrics · doi:10.5409/wjcp.120091
Laane, S. A., Cook, L. G., Spence, J. S., & Chapman, S. B. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1826717
Bayrami, M., & Dadashi, S. (2026) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.107319
Coniglione, M., Figini, S., & Assecondi, S. (2026) · GeroScience · doi:10.1007/s11357-026-02381-x
The space fortress task: Psychometrics evidence and relationship with executive functions
Chenot, Q., & Scannella, S. (2026) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2026.e45593
Fan, T., Liu, C., Liu, Y., & Li, G. (2026) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci16080861
Relaciones entre las funciones ejecutivas y la tolerancia al distrés en niños de edad escolar
Vernucci, S., Pereyra, M. F., del Valle, M. V., Trudo, R. G., & Juric, L. C. (2026) · Avances en Psicología Latinoamericana · doi:10.12804/revistas.urosario.edu.co/apl/a.14407
From domains to mechanisms of healthy psychological aging
Bunzeck, N. (2026) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2026.106988
Lezama, R., Pinto, R., Censo, D. D., Monopoli, G., Perrucci, M. G., Fairfield, B., Pizzi, S. D., Committeri, G., Caulo, M., Wise, R. G., et al. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-11141574/v1
- Authors
- Traut, H. J., Guild, R. M., & Munakata, Y.
- Affiliations
- University of Colorado Boulder (US)
- University of California, Davis (US)
- Corresponding author
- Traut, Hilary J.
- Venue
- Frontiers in Psychology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2021-05-26
- Volume
- 12
- Pages
- 662139-662139
- ISSN
- 1664-1078 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC8187947
- OpenAlex
- W3164249540
- Cited by
- 100
- References
- 82
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 3
- FWCI
- 2.33
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
- Keywords
- cognitive training, individual differences, compensation effect, magnification effects, executive function, episodic memory, strategy training, process training
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
