Cognitive Training Does Not Enhance General Cognition
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Due to potential theoretical and societal implications, cognitive training has been one of the most influential topics in psychology and neuroscience. The assumption behind cognitive training is that one's general cognitive ability can be enhanced by practicing cognitive tasks or intellectually demanding activities. The hundreds of studies published so far have provided mixed findings and systematic reviews have reached inconsistent conclusions. To resolve these discrepancies, we carried out several meta-analytic reviews. The results are highly consistent across all the reviewed domains: minimal effect on domain-general cognitive skills. Crucially, the observed between-study variability is accounted for by design quality and statistical artefacts. The cognitive-training program of research has showed no appreciable benefits, and other more plausible practices to enhance cognitive performance should be pursued.
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Sala et al. (2019a) found a far-transfer effect of g=0.02 in children with learning disabilities.
“The effect size was 𝑔̅ = 0.37 for near transfer, and 𝑔̅ = 0.02 for far transfer.”
From Working memory training in typically developing children: A multilevel meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Sala et al., 2019a
The Working-Memory Training section reports near-zero generalized benefits in a meta-analysis of children and adolescents with learning disabilities. It does not give a far-transfer estimate of g = 0.02; searches for 0.02 and 0.37 found neither estimate in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSala et al. (2019a) found a near-transfer effect of g=0.37 in children with learning disabilities.
“The effect size was 𝑔̅ = 0.37 for near transfer, and 𝑔̅ = 0.02 for far transfer.”
From Working memory training in typically developing children: A multilevel meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Sala et al., 2019a
The Working-Memory Training section says training appears to improve performance on memory tasks and reports similar findings for children and adolescents with learning disabilities. It does not give a near-transfer effect size of g=0.37 or a far-transfer effect size of g=0.02 for that population (searched both values and the population). (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPrior meta-analyses found that working memory training has a medium effect on near-transfer memory tasks.
“Both meta-analyses reach the conclusion that while WM training exerts a medium effect on memory-task performance (near transfer), no other cognitive or academic skills (far transfer) seem to be affected, regardless of the population examined; in particular, no effects are observed when active controls are implemented to rule out placebo effects”
From Working memory training in typically developing children: A multilevel meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Sala et al., 2019a
Prior meta-analyses found no far-transfer effects on other cognitive or academic skills, especially when active controls are used.
“Both meta-analyses reach the conclusion that while WM training exerts a medium effect on memory-task performance (near transfer), no other cognitive or academic skills (far transfer) seem to be affected, regardless of the population examined; in particular, no effects are observed when active controls are implemented to rule out placebo effects”
From Working memory training in typically developing children: A multilevel meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Sala et al., 2019a
This pattern of results also appears in adults, older adults, and children with learning disabilities.
“Furthermore, as the same pattern of results has been found in adults, older adults, and children with learning disabilities (Aksayli et al., 2019;Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016;Sala et al., 2019a), the most parsimonious and plausible conclusion is that WM training does not lead to far transfer.”
From Working memory training in typically developing children: A multilevel meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Sala et al., 2019a
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“Examples include learning situations that are desirably difficult [97], retrieval-based learning [98], mnemonics [99], and elaboration strategies [100].”
Cognitive Benefits of Chess Training in Novice Children
Gliga, F., & Flesner, P. I. (2014) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.328 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
A Hypothesis about the Biological Basis of Expert Intuition
Chassy, P., & Gobet, F. R. (2011) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0023958 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
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A Cross-Lagged Panel Analysis of Psychometric Intelligence and Achievement in Reading and Math
Watkins, M. W., & Styck, K. M. (2017) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence5030031 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
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Brain-Training Pessimism, but Applied-Memory Optimism
McCabe, J. A., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2016) · Gothic.net · doi:10.1177/1529100616664716 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Multi-modal fitness and cognitive training to enhance fluid intelligence
Daugherty, A. M., Zwilling, C. E., Paul, E. J., Sherepa, N., Allen, C. M., Kramer, A. F., Hillman, C. H., Cohen, N. J., & Barbey, A. K. (2017) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2017.11.001 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
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Cognitive Expertise: An ALE Meta-Analysis
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Gray matter responsiveness to adaptive working memory training: a surface-based morphometry study
Román, F. J., Lewis, L. B., Chen, C., Karama, S., Burgaleta, M., Martínez, K., Lepage, C., Jaeggi, S. M., Evans, A. C., Kremen, W. S., et al. (2015) · Brain Structure and Function · doi:10.1007/s00429-015-1168-7 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Augmenting intelligence: Developmental limits to learning-based cognitive change
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Theoretical Models of Training and Transfer Effects
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ERP to chess stimuli reveal expert‐novice differences in the amplitudes of N 2 and P 3 components
Wright, M. J., Gobet, F. R., Chassy, P., & Ramchandani, P. N. (2013) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.12084 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citationStudies of the Activation and Structural Changes of the Brain Associated with Expertise
Bilalić, M., & Campitelli, G. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316480748.014 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Conquering Mnemonophobia, with Help from Three Practical Measures of Memory and Application
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LEFT LATERALIZATION IN AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY: AN fMRI STUDY USING THE EXPERT ARCHIVAL PARADIGM
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Conquering Mnemonophobia, with Help from Three Practical Measures of Memory and Application
Carney, R. N., & Levin, J. R. (2008) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1177/009862830803500304
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
What is good mental health? A scoping review
Fusar-Poli, P., Salazar de Pablo, G., De Micheli, A., Nieman, D. H., Correll, C. U., Kessing, L. V., Pfennig, A., Bechdolf, A., Borgwardt, S., Arango, C., et al. (2020) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2019.12.105 · Cited by 356 · see citing works
Persistence and Fade-Out of Educational-Intervention Effects: Mechanisms and Potential Solutions
Bailey, D. H., Duncan, G. J., Cunha, F., Foorman, B. R., & Yeager, D. S. (2020) · Gothic.net · doi:10.1177/1529100620915848 · Cited by 302 · see citing works
Cognitive and academic benefits of music training with children: A multilevel meta-analysis
Sala, G., & Gobet, F. (2020) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-020-01060-2 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Self-citationNguyen, L., Murphy, K. A., & Andrews, G. (2019) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2019.100912 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Vedechkina, M., & Borgonovi, F. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.611155 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
“…between overlapping brain regions (Dahlin et al., 2008), supporting that transfer is limited where a game and task do not recruit similar perceptual templates, and that any post-training benefits of gaming are likely task-specific (Przybylski and Wang, 2016; Azizi et al., 2017; Sala and Gobet, 2018).”
BackgroundCognitive Training: A Field in Search of a Phenomenon
Gobet, F. R., & Sala, G. (2022) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916221091830 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
“Cognitive training refers to interventions using cognitive tasks or intellectually demanding activities, the goal of which is to enhance general cognitive ability (Sala & Gobet, 2017b, 2019).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationA new look at the cognitive neuroscience of video game play
Dale, G., Joessel, A., Bavelier, D., & Green, C. S. (2020) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.14295 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Sedentary behavior and lifespan brain health
Zou, L., Herold, F., Cheval, B., Wheeler, M. J., Pindus, D. M., Erickson, K. I., Raichlen, D. A., Alexander, G. E., Müller, N. G., Dunstan, D. W., et al. (2024) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2024.02.003 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Working memory training in typically developing children: A multilevel meta-analysis
Sala, G., & Gobet, F. (2020) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-019-01681-y · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Self-citationMechanisms underlying training-induced cognitive change
von Bastian, C. C., Belleville, S., Udale, R. C., Reinhartz, A., Essounni, M., & Strobach, T. (2022) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-021-00001-3 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
The cognitive and academic benefits of Cogmed: A meta-analysis
Aksayli, N. D., Sala, G., & Gobet, F. (2019) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2019.04.003 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Self-citationRomán-Caballero, R., Vadillo, M. A., Trainor, L. J., & Lupiáñez, J. (2022) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2022.100436 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
“Some authors have expressed skepticism about far transfer (Roediger, 2013; Sala & Gobet, 2019; Thorndike, 1906).”
BackgroundDefining intelligence: Bridging the gap between human and artificial perspectives
Gignac, G. E., & Szodorai, E. T. (2024) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2024.101832 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
“Importantly, improvements in cognitive performance in one area through training does not yield increases in performance in other cognitive abilities (Gobet & Sala, 2023; Sala & Gobet, 2019).”
Correlation = causation? Music training, psychology, and neuroscience
Schellenberg, E. G. (2020) · Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts · doi:10.1037/aca0000263 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Training for Wisdom: The Distanced-Self-Reflection Diary Method
Grossmann, I., Dorfman, A., Oakes, H., Santos, H. C., Vohs, K. D., & Scholer, A. A. (2021) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797620969170 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“Moreover, past work has high-lighted the difficulties in extending domain-general training effects to novel situations (Kassai, Futo, Demetrovics, & Takacs, 2019; Sala & Gobet, 2019).”
Near and far transfer: Is music special?
Bigand, E., & Tillmann, B. (2022) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-021-01226-6 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
“For the authors, “the obvious practical implication is that music training should not be used as a tool for cognitive enhancement” (Sala & Gobet, 2019b, page 991) and “Educators and policymakers should be aware that music training provides no benefits on nonmusic-related cognitive or academic…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialToward a Science of Effective Cognitive Training
Smid, C. R., Karbach, J., & Steinbeis, N. (2020) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721420951599 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
“Sala and Gobet (2017, 2019) provided a critical assessment of transfer effects after WM training.”
BackgroundBeyond artificial intelligence: exploring artificial wisdom
Jeste, D. V., Graham, S. A., Nguyen, T. T., Depp, C. A., Lee, E. E., & Kim, H.-C. (2020) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610220000927 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
“…are malleable to training (Rebok et al., 2014); yet, such interventions do not always generalize across domains (e.g. techniques to improvememory do not help spatial orientation or inductive reasoning) and may not improve overall intellectual functioning (Butler et al., 2018; Sala and Gobet, 2019).”
Randomized controlled trial of TDCS on cognition in 201 seniors with mild neurocognitive disorder
Lu, H., Chan, S. S. M., Chan, W. C., Lin, C., Cheng, C. P. W., & Wa, L. L. C. (2019) · Annals of Clinical and Translational Neurology · doi:10.1002/acn3.50823 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“It is not surprising to detect the improvement in the domain being trained, such as memory.(28) When WMT with an add-on tDCS, the two modalities showed synergistic effects presenting with gains across the broader domains of cognitive functions over time.”
MethodEffects of action video game play on cognitive skills: A meta-analysis.
Bediou, B., Rodgers, M. A., Tipton, E., Mayer, R. E., Green, C. S., & Bavelier, D. (2023) · Technology Mind and Behavior · doi:10.1037/tmb0000102 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
A critical review of research on executive functions in sport and exercise
Furley, P., Schütz, L.-M., & Wood, G. (2023) · International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1750984x.2023.2217437 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Nguyen, L., Murphy, K. A., & Andrews, G. (2021) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-021-09515-2 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Training Executive Functions to Improve Academic Achievement: Tackling Avenues to Far Transfer
Gunzenhauser, C., & Nückles, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.624008 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
A Review of US Army Research Contributing to Cognitive Enhancement in Military Contexts
Brunyé, T. T., Brou, R. J., Doty, T. J., Gregory, F. D., Hussey, E. K., Lieberman, H. R., Loverro, K. L., Mezzacappa, E. S., Neumeier, W. H., Patton, D. J., et al. (2020) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-020-00167-3 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Kühn, S., Gallinat, J., & Mascherek, A. (2019) · Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.31887/dcns.2019.21.3/skuehn · Cited by 54 · see citing works
From bias to sound intuiting: Boosting correct intuitive reasoning
Boissin, E., Caparos, S., Raoelison, M., & Neys, W. D. (2021) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104645 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“This fits with the finding that existing de-biasing or cognitive training programs are often task or domain specific (Lilienfeld et al., 2009; Sala & Gobet, 2019; but see also Morewedge et al., 2015; Trouche et al., 2014).”
BackgroundSala, G., Aksayli, N. D., Tatlidil, K. S., Gondo, Y., & Gobet, F. (2019) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2019.101386 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Self-citationStaiano, W., Merlini, M., Romagnoli, M., Kirk, U., Ring, C., & Marcora, S. (2022) · International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance · doi:10.1123/ijspp.2022-0144 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Niebaum, J. C., & Munakata, Y. (2022) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248372.2022.2160723 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“…2018; Diamond & Ling, 2020; Friese, Frankenbach, Job, & Loschelder, 2017; Gobet & Sala, 2022; Jacob & Parkinson, 2015; Kassai et al., 2019; Melby-Lervåg, Redick, & Hulme, 2016; Nesbitt & Farran, 2021; Sala & Gobet, 2019; Sala, Tatlidil, & Gobet, 2018; Simons et al., 2016; Takacs & Kassai, 2019).”
BackgroundCognitive and neuroscientific perspectives of healthy ageing
Prince, J. B., Davis, H. L., Tan, J., Muller-Townsend, K. L., Markovic, S. J., Lewis, D. M. G., Hastie, B., Thompson, M. B., Drummond, P. D., Fujiyama, H., et al. (2024) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105649 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“…associated with cognitive training for older adults (Sala and Gobet, 2020; Sala et al., 2018), and a common critique centres on the lack of transferability from domain-specific training programs to general cognitive functioning (Owen et al., 2010; Sala and Gobet, 2019; Simons et al., 2016).”
Leveraging technology to personalize cognitive enhancement methods in aging
Ziegler, D. A., Anguera, J. A., Gallen, C. L., Hsu, W.-Y., Wais, P. E., & Gazzaley, A. (2022) · Nature Aging · doi:10.1038/s43587-022-00237-5 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
How malleable are cognitive abilities? A critical perspective on popular brief interventions.
Moreau, D. (2021) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0000872 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Ludyga, S., Held, S., Rappelt, L., Donath, L., & Klatt, S. (2022) · European Journal of Sport Science · doi:10.1080/17461391.2022.2099765 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“Moreover, the practical relevance of cognitive training has been questioned due to the absence of a far transfer to global cognition and complex activities demanding the employment of trained cognitive functions (Sala & Gobet, 2019).”
BackgroundKatzir, M., Baldwin, M., Werner, K., & Hofmann, W. (2021) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2021.1883627 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Self-control interventions may especially benefit from a line of work focused on strategies rather than ability, as training the ability is limited and yields small to no effects (Friese et al., 2017; Sala & Gobet, 2019).”
BackgroundCaetano, T., Pinho, M. S., Ramadas, E., Clara, C., Areosa, T., & Dixe, M. D. A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.730165 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Among them, videogames, music and chess instruction have all received considerable scientific interest and been the subject of several studies (Sala and Gobet, 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialManser, P., & de Bruin, E. D. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.734012 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Although transfer-effects are still debated (Sala and Gobet, 2018; Nguyen et al., 2019), and three meta-analyses have shown smaller improvements in non-trained compared to trained outcomes (Karbach and Verhaeghen, 2014; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Mewborn et al., 2017), these effects were still…”
A Review of the Effects of Abacus Training on Cognitive Functions and Neural Systems in Humans
Wang, C. (2020) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2020.00913 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Moreover, other methodological limitations such as small sample sizes and the use of passive control groups may artificially inflate the overall effect of cognitive training (Sala and Gobet, 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialΔημητρίου, Α., Spanoudis, G. C., Christou, C., Greiff, S., Makris, N., Vainikainen, M., Golino, H. F., & Gonida, E. Ν. (2022) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/rev0000399 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Training of Executive Functions in Children: A meta-analysis of cognitive training interventions
Birtwistle, E., Chernikova, O., Wünsch, M., & Niklas, F. (2025) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440241311060 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“Contrary to our expectation, we did not find greater effects for most near-transfer skills (Gade et al., 2017; Sala & Gobet, 2017, 2019).”
InfluentialCao, Y., Huang, T., Huang, J., Xie, X., & Wang, Y. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.580329 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 10 November 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 580329 Researchers, nowadays, tend to believe that cognitive training does not enhance the general cognition but only the specific aspect of cognitive function (Sala and Gobet, 2019).”
BackgroundUnifying framework for cognitive training interventions in brain aging
Turnbull, A. G., Seitz, A. R., Tadin, D., & Lin, F. V. (2022) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2022.101724 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“, 2008), most cognitive training paradigms are still very narrow in terms of the cognitive processes they target, a feature that limits the degree of transfer (Sala and Gobet, 2019).”
BackgroundLeveraging artificial intelligence to improve people’s planning strategies
Callaway, F., Jain, Y., van Opheusden, B., Das, P., Iwama, G., Gul, S., Krueger, P. M., Becker, F., Griffiths, T. L., & Lieder, F. (2022) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2117432119 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“The benefits of cognitive training are often limited to tasks that are very similar to the exercises that people practiced on (43, 44).”
BackgroundFikkers, K. M., Piotrowski, J. T., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2019) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1093/joc/jqz003 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Does a Growth Mindset Enable Successful Aging?
Heslin, P. A., Burnette, J. L., & Ryu, N. G. (2020) · Work Aging and Retirement · doi:10.1093/workar/waaa029 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Blanco-Elorrieta, E., & Caramazza, A. (2021) · Neurobiology of Language · doi:10.1162/nol_a_00041 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“…training only improves the specific skill one is training (e.g., Ericsson & Charness, 1994; Gobet et al., 2001; Gobet, 2015; Hambrick et al., 2017; Powers et al., 2013; Redick et al., 2017; Sala et al., 2018; Sala & Gobet, 2019; Schellenberg, 2020; Simons et al., 2016; Unsworth et al., 2015).”
BackgroundKolskår, K. K., Richard, G., Alnæs, D., Dørum, E. S., Sanders, A., Ulrichsen, K. M., Sánchez, J. M., Ihle‐Hansen, H., Formoe, H., Nordvik, J. E., et al. (2020) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.25284 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Indeed, recent large-scale reviews suggest a lack of reliable transfer beyond tasks that share properties with the trained tasks (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Sala & Gobet, 2019).”
MACKENZIE, L., & MARSHALL, K. (2021) · European Journal of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine · doi:10.23736/s1973-9087.21.06898-2 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Ganesan, K., Thompson, A., Smid, C. R., Cañigueral, R., Li, Y., Revill, G., Puetz, V. B., Bernhardt, B. C., Dosenbach, N. U. F., Kievit, R., et al. (2024) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41593-024-01672-w · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Research on the effectiveness of cognitive control interventions has been riddled with contradictory findings 32,60,61 .”
BackgroundSpecht, J., Stegmann, B., Gross, H., & Krakow, K. (2023) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/45816 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Furthermore, researchers discovered insufficient evidence of computer-based training in a second-order meta-analysis in neurorehabilitation [11].”
BackgroundHeuristics, Biases and the Psychology of Reasoning: State of the Art
Martín, M., & García, M. D. V. (2023) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2023.142016 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Action Real-Time Strategy Gaming Experience Related to Enhanced Capacity of Visual Working Memory
Yao, Y., Cui, R., Li, Y., Zeng, L., Jiang, J., Qiu, N., Dong, L., Gong, D., Yan, G., Ma, W., et al. (2020) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2020.00333 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“This is consistent with previous findings which state that fluid Frontiers in Human Neuroscience | www.frontiersin.org 8 August 2020 | Volume 14 | Article 333 intelligence is less plastic (Boot et al., 2008; Dale and Green, 2017a; Bavelier and Green, 2019; Sala and Gobet, 2019).”
ResultMay, R. J., Tyndall, I. T., McTiernan, A., Roderique‐Davies, G., & McLoughlin, S. (2022) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13192 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Debiasing System 1: Training favours logical over stereotypical intuiting
Boissin, E., Caparos, S., Voudouri, A., & Neys, W. D. (2022) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/s1930297500008895 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“This fits with the finding that existing debiasing or cognitive training programs are often task or domain specific (Lilienfeld et al., 2009; Sala & Gobet, 2019; but also see Morewedge et al., 2015; Trouche et al., 2014).”
BackgroundEffects of Combined Aerobic Exercise and Cognitive Training on Verbal Fluency in Older Adults
Nocera, J. R., Mammino, K., Kommula, Y., Wharton, W., Crosson, B., & McGregor, K. (2020) · Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine · doi:10.1177/2333721419896884 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“However, the functional, “real-world” benefit is not without controversy, as gains are typically noted in areas closely related to the specific training protocols (Sala & Gobet, 2019).”
BackgroundVernucci, S., Juric, L. C., & Richard’s, M. M. (2022) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-022-01647-1 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Schachar, R. J. (2023) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105461 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Staiano, W., García, J. D., García‐Calvo, T., & Ring, C. (2024) · Journal of science and medicine in sport · doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2024.08.203 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Sala, G., & Gobet, F. R. (2018) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/auzry · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationRedlinger, E., Glas, B., & Rong, Y. (2022) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/35295 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Nevertheless, recent studies that report little or no benefit from cognitive training, including screen-based training, also exist in substantial numbers [10-13].”
BackgroundJastrzębski, J., & Chuderski, A. (2022) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2022.101705 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Velichkovsky, B. B., Razvaliaeva, A. Y., Khlebnikova, A. A., Manukyan, P. A., Kasatkin, V. N., & Barmin, A. V. (2023) · Behavioural Neurology · doi:10.1155/2023/1094267 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Unfortunately, the effectiveness of cognitive training is still limited [50].”
BackgroundRassam, P., Pazzianotto‐Forti, E. M., Matsumura, U., Orchanian‐Cheff, A., Aliabadi, S., Kulkarni, M., Fur, R. L. F., Rodrigues, A., Langer, D., Rozenberg, D., et al. (2023) · Chronic Respiratory Disease · doi:10.1177/14799731231163874 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Testing the Effects of 3D Multiple Object Tracking Training on Near, Mid and Far Transfer
Harris, D., Wilson, M., Smith, S. J. R., Meder, N., & Vine, S. J. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00196 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“It remains unclear, however, whether training transfers beyond the lab, to new tasks and contexts – that is, far transfer (Owen et al., 2010; Simons et al., 2016; Stojanoski et al., 2018; Sala and Gobet, 2019).”
BackgroundHong, J., Su, Y., Wang, J., Xu, X., Qu, W., Fan, H., Tan, Y., Wang, Z., Zhao, Y., & Tan, S. (2023) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2023.103584 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Learning where to be flexible: Using environmental cues to regulate cognitive control.
Xu, S., Simoens, J., Verguts, T., & Braem, S. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0001488 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
I CAN Intervention to Increase Grit and Self-Efficacy: A Pilot Study
Sigmundsson, H., & Hauge, H. (2023) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci14010033 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Cognitive training for mental health problems
Hallion, L. S., Hsu, K. J., & Schleider, J. L. (2024) · Nature Mental Health · doi:10.1038/s44220-023-00185-y · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Other reviews, meta-analyses, expert position pieces and at least one open letter have gone so far as to assert that the literature is sufficiently consistent as to constitute evidence of absence of such an effect 60,63,64 .”
Tait, J. L., Duckham, R. L., Rantalainen, T., Milte, C. M., Main, L. C., Nowson, C. A., Sanders, K. M., Taaffe, D. R., Hill, K., Abbott, G., et al. (2024) · GeroScience · doi:10.1007/s11357-024-01316-8 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Cognitive training, involving mental exercises like remembering word lists and visual tasks, can also improve cognition in older adults however intervention findings are mixed [2].”
Aging Modulates Prefrontal Plasticity Induced by Executive Control Training
Najberg, H., Wachtl, L., Anziano, M., Mouthon, M., & Spierer, L. (2020) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhaa259 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“This is in line with current evidence for highly specific effect of executive training (Sala and Gobet 2019).”
Auditory cognitive aging in amateur singers and non-singers
Tremblay, P., & Perron, M. (2022) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105311 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Meng, F., Zhang, S., Yu, J., Chen, Y., Luo, L., He, F., Wei, R., Yuan, H. W., Ji, R., Chen, H., et al. (2020) · Translational Stroke Research · doi:10.1007/s12975-020-00785-1 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
What components of working memory are associated with children's reading skills?
Morris, B. M., & Lonigan, C. J. (2022) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2022.102114 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Liu, X., Wang, G., & Cao, Y. (2023) · Aging Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1007/s40520-022-02333-3 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“A recent study also noted that CT has shown no significant benefit in improving cognitive function in older adults and that other more rational practices should be adopted to enhance cognitive performance [60].”
BackgroundA Rational Account of Cognitive Control Development in Childhood
Steinbeis, N. (2023) · Annual Review of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-devpsych-120221-040058 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
An integrative framework for the mechanisms underlying mindfulness-induced cognitive change
Cásedas, L., Schooler, J. W., Vadillo, M. A., & Lupiáñez, J. (2024) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-024-00374-1 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“According to several reviews, there is solid evidence for improvements in the trained tasks; however, there is less evidence for near transfer and the evidence for far transfer is very limited at best 10–13 .”
Ehmann, P., Beavan, A., Spielmann, J., Mayer, J., Ruf, L., Altmann, S., Forcher, L., Klever, N., Rohrmann, S., Nuß, C., et al. (2022) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2022.102220 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Tapia, J. L., Taberner-Bonastre, M. T., Collado-Martínez, D., Pouptsis, A., Abad, M. N., & Duñabeitia, J. A. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20064953 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Attitudes and Beliefs Toward Computerized Cognitive Training in the General Population
Goghari, V. M., Krzyzanowski, D. J., Yoon, S. J., Dai, Y., & Toews, D. M. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00503 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“…the effects of brain training on cognitive abilities (e.g., Karbach and Verhaeghen, 2014; Au et al., 2015), the majority of meta-analyses, including the largest and most recent, have yielded null results (e.g., Melby-Lervåg and Hulme, 2013, 2016; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Sala and Gobet, 2019).”
ResultMcLoughlin, S., Tyndall, I. T., Pereira, A., & Mulhern, T. (2020) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-020-00187-z · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Cognitive and academic benefits of music training with children: A multilevel meta-analysisPreprint
Sala, G., & Gobet, F. R. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/7s8wr · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationBonnechère, B., Bier, J., Hove, O. V., Sheldon, S., Samadoulougou, S., Kirakoya-Samadoulougou, F., & Klass, M. (2020) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/17121 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“This absence of effect is not specific to cognitive mobile games; evidence supporting the benefits of cognitive training programs on functional abilities are sparse, thus warranting further research to identify effective interventions [19].”
BackgroundCognitive training interventions for substance use disorders: what they really offer?
Pazoki, Z., Kheirkhah, M. T., & Gharibzadeh, S. (2024) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2024.1388935 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“For example, research has demonstrated that domain-specific training often fails to transfer to other cognitive functions (11) and has minimal impact on general cognition (12).”
BackgroundDobrowolski, P., Skorko, M., Myśliwiec, M., Kowalczyk‐Grębska, N., Michalak, J., & Brzezicka, A. (2021) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-021-00211-w · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“These failures and others have led some researchers to go so far as to conclude that cognitive training produces no appreciable benefits (Sala & Gobet, 2019), and such a conclusion is not unwarranted given the available literature.”
BackgroundThe neural correlates of working memory training in typically developing children
Jones, J. S., Adlam, A., Benattayallah, A., & Milton, F. (2021) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13721 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
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Joyal, M., Sicard, A., Penhune, V. B., Jackson, P. L., & Tremblay, P. (2024) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.15230 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Cerreta, A., Mruczek, R. E. B., & Berryhill, M. E. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.570030 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
da Silva, T. B. L., Barbosa, M. E. D. C., Zumkeller, M. G., Verga, C. E. R., Lessa, P. P., Cardoso, N. P., de Moraes, L. C., & Brucki, S. M. D. (2021) · Dementia & Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1590/1980-57642021dn15-020014 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Beyond IQ: The Importance of Metacognition for the Promotion of Global Wellbeing
Varshney, L. R., & Barbey, A. K. (2021) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence9040054 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Although still very much an active area of research, transfer of metacognitive training may be more effective (Jones et al. 2020; Schaeffner et al. 2021) than transfer of cognitive training, which demonstrates limited generalization (Sala and Gobet 2017, 2019).”
BackgroundAdaptive habits: understanding executive function and its development
Niebaum, J. C., Zengilowski, A., Katz, B., Shah, P., & Munakata, Y. (2025) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2025.10.016 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Wards, Y., Ehrhardt, S. E., Filmer, H. L., Mattingley, J. B., Garner, K., & Dux, P. E. (2023) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhad406 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
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“8,9 Nevertheless, therapeutic options for cognitive impairments are available, including both non-pharmacological (e.g., cognitive rehabilitation) 10,11 and pharmacological approaches.”
Conte, G., Costanza, C., Novelli, M., Scarselli, V., Arigliani, E., Valente, F., Baglioni, V., Terrinoni, A., Chiarotti, F., & Cardona, F. (2024) · Children · doi:10.3390/children11020226 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“…information; maintain attention for reasoning; adapt responses to changes in the environment, personal goals, etc.; represent foundational factors to learn and attain education [23,24]; reach a successful transition to adulthood [25]; and, most importantly, maintain good mental health [26,27].”
BackgroundCan We Train Multisensory Integration in Adults? A Systematic Review
O’Brien, J., Mason, A., Chan, J., & Setti, A. (2023) · Multisensory Research · doi:10.1163/22134808-bja10090 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Volders, E., de Groot, R. H. M., Coumans, J. M. J., Bolman, C. A. W., & Lechner, L. (2021) · European Review of Aging and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/s11556-021-00259-9 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“This is an important issue for future research [79].”
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Impact of screen size on cognitive training task performance: An HMD study
Redlinger, E., Glas, B., & Rong, Y. (2021) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2021.06.003 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Kolskår, K. K., Richard, G., Alnæs, D., Dørum, E. S., Sanders, A., Ulrichsen, K. M., Sánchez, J. M., Ihle‐Hansen, H., Nordvik, J. E., & Westlye, L. T. (2019) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/603985 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Indeed, recent large-scale reviews suggest a lack of reliable transfer beyond tasks that share properties with the trained tasks (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Sala and Gobet, 2018).”
BackgroundLewandowska, P., Jakubowska, N., Hryniewicz, N., Prusinowski, R., Kossowski, B., Brzezicka, A., & Kowalczyk‐Grębska, N. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-25099-0 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Harrell, E. R., King, J. W., Stoeckel, L. E., & Treviño, M. (2024) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbae120 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
- Authors
- Sala, G., & Gobet, F.
- Affiliations
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JP)
- University of Liverpool (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Gobet, Fernand
- Venue
- Trends in Cognitive Sciences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2019-01
- Volume
- 23
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 9-20
- ISSN
- 1364-6613 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2901703539
- Cited by
- 303
- References
- 122
- Citations by year
- 2026: 42 · 2025: 46 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 48 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 3.46
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- orcid.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Trends in Cognitive Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- London School of Economics and Political Science Research Online (London School of Economics and Political Science) (acceptedVersion)
- London School of Economics and Political Science Theses Online (London School of Economics and Political Science) (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (17F17313)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
- Keywords
- cognitive training, general intelligence, transfer of training, domain-general cognitive abilities, cognitive enhancement, statistical artifacts, study design quality
- MeSH terms
- Cognition, Humans, Intelligence, Practice, Psychological
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