CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 94Educational Games and GamificationAugmented Reality ApplicationsMultimedia Learning Systems

Integrating Augmented Reality, Gamification, and Serious Games in Computer Science Education

Open access
Lampropoulos, Georgios, Keramopoulos, Euclid, Diamantaras, Konstantinos, Evangelidis, Georgios·2023·Education Sciences
DOI 10.3390/educsci13060618
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

This study aims to evaluate the impact of using augmented reality, gamification, and serious games in computer science education. The study presents the development process of an educational mobile application, describes an experiment that was conducted and involved 117 higher education students, and analyzes the results of a 49-item paper-based questionnaire. In total, 8 research questions were explored. The results of the study revealed that several educational benefits can be yielded when integrating such applications in teaching and learning activities and actively involving students in the design and development process. In particular, the application was assessed as an effective learning tool that could enrich and improve the educational process and create interactive, inclusive, and student-centered learning environments. Its use led mostly to positive effects and experiences while maintaining the negative ones to a minimum and most students expressed positive emotions. Students were able to learn in a more enjoyable and interesting manner, and their motivation, engagement, self-efficacy, and immersion were greatly increased. Students’ innate need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness was satisfactorily met and both their intrinsic and extrinsic learning motivations were triggered. They felt a sense of belonging and cultivated their social skills. The potential of the application to improve students’ knowledge acquisition and academic achievements was also observed. The application also enabled students to improve their computational thinking and critical thinking skills. Therefore, the potential of combining augmented reality, gamification, and serious games to enhance students’ cognitive and social–emotional development was highlighted.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This study developed and evaluated a mobile augmented reality educational application integrating gamification and serious games for computer science education with 117 higher education students. Students rated it highly usable and reported positive game experience, motivation, emotions, and educational benefits, though the study relies on self-report and lacks controlled outcome measures.

Key findings

  • The application received a SUS score of 81.24, placing it in the 90th–95th percentile with grade A; 94.02% found it easy to use, 94.87% said its functions were well integrated, and 97.44% did not need technical assistance.
  • GEQ results showed sensory and imaginative immersion at 4.20, positive affect at 4.01 versus negative affect at 1.85, tension at 1.62, competence at 3.69, challenge at 2.81, and flow at 2.83; overall positive game experience was 3.55 versus negative experience 1.62.
  • Students reported both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (46.15%), with intrinsic motivation most triggered (43.59%); emotions included joy (82.91%), surprise (67.52%), anticipation (36.75%), and trust (22.22%); autonomy was met for 94.87%, competence for 91.45%, and relatedness for 67.52%.
  • Educational benefits included enhancing effectiveness of the educational process (92.31%), making learning more enjoyable and intriguing (90.59%), creating student-centered environments (89.74%), improving comprehension (88.04%), improving academic performance (82.91%), and increasing computational thinking (88.89%).

Methods

  • Quantitative study with 117 higher education students at the Department of Information and Electronic Engineering, International Hellenic University, in February 2023; average age was 21.98, with 15 female (12.82%) and 102 male (87.18%) students, mostly in their third year, implemented in eight groups of 20–23 students.
  • A mobile augmented reality application for Android and iOS was developed in Unity using Vuforia, a fiducial marker, an SQL database, gamification elements such as tasks, points, scores, time, leaderboards, hints, feedback, and badges, and serious games across computer science course categories; the ADDIE model and cooperative inquiry co-design with students were used.
  • Evaluation used a 49-item paper-based questionnaire including the System Usability Scale (SUS) and Game Experience Questionnaire (GEQ), adapted to a 1–5 Likert scale, plus ad hoc items; results were analyzed with descriptive statistics and component scores.

Limitations

  • Stated by the authors: participants were from a computer science-focused department and already familiar with mobile applications, which could have influenced their usability and learnability opinions; the technical focus on Android and iOS and mobile/tablet devices is also noted as a limitation.
  • Stated by the authors: the study did not use test and control groups or pre-tests and post-tests; future work is planned to evaluate impact on academic performance, skills, and knowledge acquisition in different areas of computer science education.
  • Evident from the text: findings rely on self-reported perceptions from a single department and a gender-imbalanced sample (102 male, 15 female), with no objective learning outcome or long-term retention measures reported.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/educsci13060618

Cites

63 of 67 references verified0 citation errors · 4 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

12 of 35 cited sources checked · 6 supported · 1 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    The field of computer science had very few studies exploring the integration of augmented reality in combination with gamification and serious games.

    “the field of computer science was one that had very few studies exploring the integration of augmented reality in combination with gamification and serious games.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [14] Lampropoulos, G., Keramopoulos, E., Diamantaras, K., and Evangelidis, G. (2022). Augmented reality and gamification in education: A systematic literature review of research, applications, and empirical studies. Appl. Sci., 12. source

      In the paper’s discussion of study topics (section labeled “Ref.”; page unavailable), the authors say the majority of reviewed studies focused on STEAM fields, particularly computer science and mathematics. That is contrary to the claim that computer science had very few studies of augmented reality combined with gamification. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Findingown data

    Most students expressed positive emotions when using the application as a learning tool.

    “most students expressed positive emotions”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Students were able to learn in a more enjoyable and interesting manner with the application.

    “Students were able to learn in a more enjoyable and interesting manner”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Students' innate need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness was satisfactorily met when using the application.

    “Students' innate need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness was satisfactorily met”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In the SUS questionnaire, participants' mean rating for 'I thought the system was easy to use' was 4.23 (SD 0.55).

    “| 3. I thought the system was easy to use. | 0 (0.00%) | 0 (0.00%) | 7 (5.98%) | 76 (64.96%) | 34 (29.06%) | 4.23 | 0.55 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 36
  • May combine two claims. 51
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 3

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The use of new technologies and virtual learning environments can lead to the creation of effective educational tools that help meet new educational needs, provide meaningful and interactive learning experiences, and redefine teacher and student roles.

    “the use of new technologies and virtual learning environments can lead to the creation of effective educational tools that can help meet the new educational needs and requirements, provide students with opportunities for meaningful and interactive learning experiences, and redefine teacher and student roles”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [2] Bygstad, 2022, From dual digitalization to digital learning space: Exploring the digital transformation of higher education, Comput. Educ. source
    • cites [3] Lampropoulos, G., Anastasiadis, T., and Siakas, K. (2019, January 16). Digital game-based learning in education: Significance of motivating, engaging and interactive learning environments. Proceedings of the 25th International Conference on Software Process Improvement-Research into Education and Training (INSPIRE), Southampton, UK.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [4] Raja, 2018, Impact of modern technology in education, J. Appl. Adv. Res. source

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Interpretationown data

    The results validate those of a previous study which demonstrated that the public mostly expresses positive emotions (e.g., anticipation, trust, and joy) and has a positive attitude toward the general and educational use of augmented reality.

    “The results also validate those of a previous study that focused on the public perspectives, sentiments, and attitudes regarding the use of augmented reality in education and demonstrated that the public mostly expresses positive emotions”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] Lampropoulos, G., Keramopoulos, E., Diamantaras, K., and Evangelidis, G. (2022). Augmented reality and virtual reality in education: Public perspectives, sentiments, attitudes, and discourses. Educ. Sci., 12. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Gamification is an active methodology that can enhance students' motivation and engagement through the use of game elements in non-game-related contexts.

    “Gamification constitutes an active methodology that can enhance students' motivation and engagement and involves the use of game elements in non-game-related contexts”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [21] Lampropoulos, 2022, Comparing gamification models in higher education using Face-to-Face and virtual escape rooms, J. New Approaches Educ. Res. source
    • cites [22] Hamari, J., Koivisto, J., and Sarsa, H. (2014, January 6–9). Does gamification work?—A literature review of empirical studies on gamification. Proceedings of the 2014 47th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Washington, DC, USA. source
    • cites [23] Seaborn, 2015, Gamification in theory and action: A survey, Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Students who used Stefanidi et al.'s gamified augmented reality application found the overall learning experience interesting and fun and better understood the idea of intelligent environments.

    “Their results revealed that the overall learning experience was interesting and fun according to the students who better understood the idea of intelligent environments.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] Stefanidi, E., Korozi, M., Leonidis, A., Arampatzis, D., Antona, M., and Papagiannakis, G. (2021, January 24–30). When children program intelligent environments: Lessons learned from a serious AR game. Proceedings of the Interaction Design and Children, Athens, Greece. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The results of existing studies suggest that the integration of gamification, serious games, and augmented reality in educational settings is positively viewed and has the potential to yield positive learning outcomes.

    “the results of existing studies suggest that their integration in educational settings is positively viewed and has the potential to yield positive learning outcomes”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim3 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [14] Lampropoulos, G., Keramopoulos, E., Diamantaras, K., and Evangelidis, G. (2022). Augmented reality and gamification in education: A systematic literature review of research, applications, and empirical studies. Appl. Sci., 12. source

      The Conclusions (section 7; page not provided) say that combining augmented reality with gamification was positively viewed by students and educators and improved learning outcomes. The cited conclusion does not establish the same finding for an integration that also includes serious games as a distinct component. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [30] Lampropoulos, G., Keramopoulos, E., Diamantaras, K., and Evangelidis, G. (2022). Augmented reality and virtual reality in education: Public perspectives, sentiments, attitudes, and discourses. Educ. Sci., 12. source

      The Discussion reports that tweets about augmented and virtual reality in education were predominantly positive, and the Introduction says immersive technologies can improve learning outcomes. The paper does not establish those points for the integration of gamification, serious games, and augmented reality together; its gaming-related findings concern a topic in the tweet analysis, not educational outcomes. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [31] Kinshuk, 2021, Augmented reality in education: An overview of twenty-five years of research, Contemp. Educ. Technol. source

      The Introduction reports positive learning outcomes from augmented reality in education. The RQ3 section finds growing research interest in combining gamification or game-based learning with AR, but does not establish that the integration of gamification, serious games, and AR is positively viewed or produces positive learning outcomes. Page numbers are not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation

    There is a clear need for more empirical studies to better comprehend the impact of the combination of extended reality, serious games, and gamification in education and training, particularly in computer science.

    “there is a clear need for more empirical studies to be conducted to better comprehend the impact that the combination of extended reality, serious games, and gamification can have in the educational and training domains and this is particularly true in the field of computer science”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [14] Lampropoulos, G., Keramopoulos, E., Diamantaras, K., and Evangelidis, G. (2022). Augmented reality and gamification in education: A systematic literature review of research, applications, and empirical studies. Appl. Sci., 12. source

      The Summary of the Results and Main Findings calls for more evaluation of augmented reality and gamification’s impact on students’ social-emotional development, and the Conclusions call for further studies and better evaluation tools. These passages support a need for further research, but not the broader combination of extended reality, serious games, and gamification, nor a particular need in computer science. Page numbers are not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Serious games are used in educational contexts to provide learning activities in a more playful, interactive, and engaging manner while increasing students' motivation and involvement.

    “Serious games are also used in educational contexts to provide learning activities in a more playful, interactive, and engaging manner while increasing students' motivation and involvement.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [25] Ritterfeld, U., Cody, M., and Vorderer, P. (2009). Serious Games: Mechanisms and Effects, Routledge. source
    • cites [26] Susi, T., Johannesson, M., and Backlund, P. (2007). Serious Games: An Overview, School of Humanities and Informatics, University of Skövde. Technical Report HS-IKI-TR-07-001.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [27] Laamarti, 2014, An overview of serious games, Int. J. Comput. Games Technol. source

      Section 5.1 (Education and Training; page not supplied) describes classroom games used for learning and reports that students in one history-class case study became more interactive and engaged. It also discusses playful design and assessing players’ motivation, but does not report that educational serious games generally increase students’ motivation. That part of the claim goes beyond the evidence in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The integration of digital technologies in the educational process is integral for attaining high quality, equitable, and inclusive education and meeting students' educational needs.

    “The integration of digital technologies in the educational process is an integral part for attaining high quality, equitable, and inclusive education, as well as meeting students' educational needs”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1] Haleem, 2022, Understanding the role of digital technologies in education: A review, Sustain. Oper. Comput. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The application enabled students to improve their computational thinking and critical thinking skills.

    “The application also enabled students to improve their computational thinking and critical thinking skills.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The educational application was assessed as an effective learning tool that could enrich and improve the educational process and create interactive, inclusive, and student-centered learning environments.

    “the application was assessed as an effective learning tool that could enrich and improve the educational process and create interactive, inclusive, and studentcentered learning environments.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Both students' intrinsic and extrinsic learning motivations were triggered when using the application.

    “both their intrinsic and extrinsic learning motivations were triggered”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The use of the application led mostly to positive effects and experiences while maintaining negative ones to a minimum.

    “Its use led mostly to positive effects and experiences while maintaining the negative ones to a minimum”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Students felt a sense of belonging and cultivated their social skills when using the application.

    “They felt a sense of belonging and cultivated their social skills.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The application has the potential to improve students' knowledge acquisition and academic achievements.

    “The potential of the application to improve students' knowledge acquisition and academic achievements was also observed.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Students' self-reported perspectives and attitudes about the application are valid indicators of the actual educational benefits and learning outcomes of using it.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Students' motivation, engagement, self-efficacy, and immersion were greatly increased when using the application.

    “their motivation, engagement, self-efficacy, and immersion were greatly increased”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Most students spend about two hours playing digital games per day (30.77%), followed by less than 30 minutes (27.35%).

    “most students spend about two hours playing (30.77%), followed by less than 30 min (27.35%)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The standard deviation for each post-game question was low, indicating responses were tightly clustered around their corresponding mean.

    “The responses to each question were tightly clustered around their corresponding mean value as the standard deviation for each one of them was low.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The application triggered both students' intrinsic and extrinsic motivations (46.15%) but mostly intrinsic motivations (43.59%) when comparing the two (RQ5).

    “the application triggered both their intrinsic and extrinsic motivations (46.15%) but mostly intrinsic motivations (43.59%) when comparing the two (RQ5)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Students' self-reported questionnaire responses accurately reflect their actual experiences with and attitudes toward the application.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The overall game experience was assessed as positive (3.55) and maintained the negative aspects to a minimum (1.62) (RQ4).

    “the overall game experience was assessed as positive (3.55) and maintained the negative aspects to a minimum (1.62) (RQ4)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    The responses to each SDT question were clustered around their corresponding mean values.

    “The responses to each question were clustered around their corresponding mean values.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Most students use their desktop to play digital games (47.79%), followed by mobile devices (29.41%).

    “most students use their desktop to play digital games (47.79%), followed by mobile devices (29.41%)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The standard deviation of all SUS questions was low, indicating responses were tightly clustered around each corresponding mean.

    “the standard deviation of all questions was low, which indicates that the responses to each question were tightly clustered around each corresponding mean value”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The GEQ in-game component 'flow' had a mean of 2.83 (SD 1.16).

    “| Flow (GEQ items 5 and 10) | 2.68 | | 1.07 | 2.98 | 1.22 | 2.83 | | 1.16 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Most students used their desktop or mobile devices to play games and either spent at least 2 h gaming or less than 30 min (RQ1).

    “Most students used their desktop or mobile devices to play games and either spend at least 2 h gaming or less than 30 min (RQ1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The overwhelming majority of students strongly agreed that the application created a student-centered environment (89.74%), improved the effectiveness of teaching and learning activities (92.31%), made the learning process more enjoyable and fun (90.59%), and helped them understand the subjects and learning material better (88.04%), which in turn will lead to better learning outcomes and improved

    “the overwhelming majority of students strongly agreed that the application created a student-centered environment (89.74%) that improved the effectiveness of teaching and learning activities (92.31), made the learning process more enjoyable and fun (90.59%), and helped them understand the subjects and learning material better (88.04%) which, in turn, will lead to better learning outcomes and”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Students' self-reported questionnaire responses accurately reflect their actual experiences with and attitudes toward the application.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The flow component had a value of 2.83, with students having mixed opinions about forgetting everything around them and feeling completely absorbed.

    “the component of flow (2.83), with students having mixed opinions when asked if they forgot everything around them and if they felt completely absorbed”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The GEQ in-game component 'positive affect' had a mean of 4.07 (SD 0.77).

    “| Positive affect (GEQ items 11 and 14) | 3.92 | | 0.82 | 4.21 | 0.69 | 4.07 | | 0.77 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The application allowed students who felt competent to respond to the requirements and overcome the challenges (91.45%) to act autonomously with full control of their actions and decisions (94.87%) while feeling a sense of belonging to a group of people with whom they related (67.52%).

    “the application allowed students, who felt competent to respond to the requirements and overcome the challenges (91.45%), to act autonomously while having full control of their actions and decisions (94.87%) and simultaneously feeling a sense of belonging to a group of people with whom they related (67.52%)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Students' self-reported questionnaire responses accurately reflect their actual experiences with and attitudes toward the application.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Based on mode and median values, positively answered learnability/usability questions had a value of 4, and negatively answered questions had mode and median values of 2 or 1.

    “based on the mode and median values, it can be inferred that most of the questions that students responded to positively regarding the learnability and usability of the application had a value of 4 and the ones to which they responded negatively, the values of mode and median were either 2 or 1”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The GEQ in-game component 'tension' had a mean of 1.62 (SD 0.77).

    “| Tension (GEQ items 6 and 8) | 1.60 | | 0.71 | 1.63 | 0.84 | 1.62 | | 0.77 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The negative emotions students experienced were minimal, while the vast majority mostly expressed positive emotions such as joy (82.91%), surprise (67.52%), anticipation (36.75%), and trust (22.22%) when using the application (RQ6).

    “the negative emotions that students experienced were minimal while the vast majority of students mostly expressed positive emotions, such as joy (82.91%), surprise (67.52%), anticipation (36.75%), and trust (22.22%), when using the application (RQ6)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Students' self-reported questionnaire responses accurately reflect their actual experiences with and attitudes toward the application.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The final SUS score for the developed application was 81.24, placing it in the 90th-95th percentile with a grade A for both usability and learnability.

    “The final SUS score for the specific application developed was 81.24, which placed it in the 90th-95th percentile with a grade A in terms of both usability and learnability.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [45] Brooke, 1996, SUS: A quick and dirty usability scale, Usability Eval. Ind.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: Students' self-reported questionnaire responses accurately reflect their actual experiences with and attitudes toward the application.
    • Rests on an assumption: The questionnaire items validly and reliably measure the constructs (usability, game experience, motivation, emotions, needs, educational benefits) they are intended to measure.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Serious games not only yield positive learning outcomes but can also be a source of enjoyment and entertainment at the same time.

    “the results revealed that serious games not only yield positive learning outcomes but can also be a source of enjoyment and entertainment at the same time”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The developed application, which used augmented reality in combination with gamification elements and serious games, resulted in an easy-to-use and learn application that greatly improved students' immersion, engagement, and motivation while providing adequate levels of challenge and complexity.

    “the developed application, which used augmented reality in combination with gamification elements and serious games, resulted in an easy-to-use and learn application that greatly improved students' immersion, engagement, and motivation while providing them with adequate levels of challenge and complexity”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The use of augmented reality, gamification, and serious games can positively affect education in general and computer science education specifically and meet students' requirements.

    “the use of augmented reality, gamification, and serious games can positively affect education in general and computer science education specifically and meet students' requirements”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The technical aspects of the study have not influenced the results or findings of this study.

    “Although these technical aspects have not influenced the results or findings of this study”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Students using Schez-Sobrino et al.'s gamified augmented reality application showed increased interest in the learning tasks and were more motivated to participate.

    “the students showcased an increased interest in the learning tasks and were more motivated to participate.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [37] Vallejo, 2020, RoboTIC: A serious game based on augmented reality for learning programming, Multimed. Tools Appl. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The results highlight the potential of augmented reality to create collaborative learning environments that can lead to improvement in learning outcomes, academic performance, socio-emotional development, and social skills (RQ3).

    “These results highlight the potential of augmented reality to create collaborative learning environments that can lead to improvement in learning outcomes, academic performance, socio-emotional development, and social skills (RQ3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The use of augmented reality and the nature of games created the appropriate conditions for collaborative learning, in which students could actively engage and interact with their peers, resulting in their feeling a sense of belonging.

    “The use of augmented reality and the nature of games created the appropriate conditions for collaborative learning to occur in which students could actively engage and interact with their peers resulting in their feeling a sense of belonging.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The sample of 15 female and 102 male students is representative of the student body of the department.

    “The sample consisted of 15 female (12.82%) and 102 male (87.18%) students which is representative of the student body of this department.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Students' low tension (1.62) shows that students were comfortable in using the application and carrying out the tasks.

    “Students' tension was low (1.62) which showcases that students were comfortable in using the application and carrying out the tasks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    When combined with gamification and serious games, augmented reality has the potential to provide significant educational benefits.

    “When combined with gamification and serious games, augmented reality has the potential to provide significant educational benefits.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These emotions can lead to a more enjoyable and satisfactory learning experience which, in turn, can result in better learning outcomes and increased motivation and engagement.

    “These emotions can lead to a more enjoyable and satisfactory learning experience which, in turn, can result in better learning outcomes and increased motivation and engagement.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisereasoning

    There is a clear need for more empirical studies that assess learning gains, perspectives of the educational community, technical aspects, students' cognitive and social-emotional development, and the gamefulness of the application.

    “there is a clear need for more empirical studies to be conducted that assess not only the learning gains and perspectives of the educational community but also look into the technical aspects, students' cognitive and social-emotional development, and the gamefulness of the application.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Desktop devices were mostly used by the students for longer periods of play time when compared to mobile devices.

    “desktop devices were mostly used by the students for longer periods of play time when compared to mobile devices.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationown data

    The participants were all acquainted with playing digital games.

    “it can be said that the participants were all acquainted with playing digital games”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Students regarded that the application could enrich the teaching and learning processes and bring about educational benefits (RQ8).

    “Students also regarded that the application could enrich the teaching and learning processes and bring about educational benefits (RQ8).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The study used two existing and validated questionnaires, the System Usability Scale (SUS) and the Game Experience Questionnaire (GEQ).

    “two existing and validated questionnaires were also adopted.In particular, the System Usability Scale (SUS) [45] was used to assess the usability and learnability of the application.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [45] Brooke, 1996, SUS: A quick and dirty usability scale, Usability Eval. Ind.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [46] IJsselsteijn, W.A., De Kort, Y.A., and Poels, K. (2013). The Game Experience Questionnaire, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Augmented reality is an interactive and flexible technology used in educational settings to improve the learning experience and outcomes.

    “Augmented reality is an interactive and flexible technology that is being used in educational settings to improve the learning experience and outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Stefanidi et al.'s gamified augmented reality application was positively assessed and made the overall learning experience more interesting and engaging.

    “the application was positively assessed and made the overall learning experience more interesting and engaging.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [36] Stefanidi, E., Arampatzis, D., Leonidis, A., Korozi, M., Antona, M., and Papagiannakis, G. (2020). Transactions on Computational Science XXXVII, Springer.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The application's use led mostly to positive effects and experiences, and students expressed positive emotions (e.g., joy, surprise, anticipation, and trust) while maintaining the negative ones to a minimum.

    “its use led mostly to positive effects and experiences and students expressed positive emotions (e.g., joy, surprise, anticipation, and trust) while maintaining the negative ones to a minimum”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The SUS outcomes and score demonstrate that the application was easy to learn and become familiar with, and that its complexity, consistency, and integration were appropriate, rendering its usability high.

    “These outcomes in combination with the SUS score of the application demonstrate that the application was easy to learn and become familiar with and although several functions and elements were presented and used, its complexity level, consistency, and integration were appropriate rendering, thus, its usability high.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Students' self-reported questionnaire responses accurately reflect their actual experiences with and attitudes toward the application.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The application allowed students to feel a sense of belonging and cultivate their social skills.

    “the application allowed students to feel a sense of belonging and cultivate their social skills”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The application created an interactive and inclusive learning environment that allowed students to learn in a more enjoyable and intriguing manner, increased their understanding of the subjects taught, improved their computer science self-efficacy, and triggered both their intrinsic and extrinsic learning motivations.

    “the application managed to create an interactive and inclusive learning environment that allowed students to learn in a more enjoyable and intriguing manner, increased their understanding of the subjects taught, improved their computer science self-efficacy, and triggered both their intrinsic and extrinsic learning motivations”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The level of difficulty and complexity in both the questions and activities was satisfactory, as students' competence (3.69) and challenge (2.81) were closer to neutral.

    “The level of difficulty and complexity in both the questions and activities was satisfactory as students' competence (3.69) and challenge (2.81) were closer to neutral.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Most students had enough experience in and knowledge of the subjects contained within the application and were capable of effectively evaluating the application and the overall learning experience.

    “most students had enough experience in and knowledge of the subjects contained within the application and were capable of effectively evaluating the application and the overall learning experience.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The augmented reality application, which integrated gamification elements and serious games, was evaluated as an effective educational tool that can enrich the educational process, meet students' educational needs, and yield several benefits in computer science education.

    “the augmented reality application, which integrated gamification elements and serious games, was evaluated as an effective educational tool that can enrich the educational process, meet students' educational needs, and yield several benefits in computer science education”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The results demonstrate the impact the application had on students and its ability to trigger positive emotions.

    “the impact that the application had on students and its ability to trigger positive emotions was demonstrated”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Students' self-reported questionnaire responses accurately reflect their actual experiences with and attitudes toward the application.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The instructor was the same in each group to minimize external factors influencing the results.

    “the instructor was the same in each group to minimize external factors influencing the results.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The questionnaire was anonymous and confidential, did not pose any risks to participants, and no personal data were collected.

    “completed the questionnaire which was anonymous and confidential and did not pose any risks (physical or psychological) to the participants.Personal data were not collected at any stage”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Students assessed Alqahtani and Kavakli-Thorne's gamified augmented reality application as a useful educational tool that enabled them to learn about cybersecurity threats.

    “Students assessed the application as a useful educational tool that enabled them to learn about cybersecurity threats and how to stay secure and safe in online environments.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [35] Alqahtani, H., and Kavakli-Thorne, M. (2020). Design and evaluation of an augmented reality game for cybersecurity awareness (CybAR). Information, 11. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The emotion values are based on the responses of the 117 students involved, who could indicate more than one emotion they felt.

    “These values are based on the responses of the 117 students who were involved and who could indicate more than one emotion that they felt.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Through this approach, students' critical thinking and computational thinking were improved.

    “through this approach, students' critical thinking and computational thinking were improved”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    A cooperative inquiry co-design approach was followed, with a group of students providing input into the design and assessing the application throughout its development.

    “a cooperative inquiry [43] co-design approach was followed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [43] Guha, 2013, Cooperative inquiry revisited: Reflections of the past and guidelines for the future of intergenerational co-design, Int. J. Child-Comput. Interact. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisereasoning

    The use of augmented reality and gamification can lead to positive learning outcomes.

    “it can be inferred that the use of augmented reality and gamification can lead to positive learning outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The focus on Android and iOS operating systems and the use of mobile and tablet devices to conduct the experiment can be mentioned as additional technical limitations.

    “from a technical perspective, the focus on Android and iOS operating systems, as well as the use of mobile and tablet devices, to conduct the experiment can also be mentioned as additional technical limitations”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Song et al.'s application increased students' learning outcomes, engagement, and satisfaction and offered more personalized learning opportunities.

    “the specific application managed to increase students' learning outcomes, engagement, and satisfaction and offered more personalized learning opportunities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [39] Song, 2017, An enjoyable learning experience in personalising learning based on knowledge management: A case study, EURASIA J. Math. Sci. Technol. Educ. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    New technologies can facilitate the visualization and comprehension of complex concepts and improve learners' engagement.

    “New technologies can facilitate the visualization and comprehension of complex concepts and improve learners' engagement”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [5] Naps, T.L., Rößling, G., Almstrum, V., Dann, W., Fleischer, R., Hundhausen, C., Korhonen, A., Malmi, L., McNally, M., and Rodger, S. (2002, January 24–28). Exploring the role of visualization and engagement in computer science education. Proceedings of the Working Group Reports from ITiCSE on Innovation and Technology in Computer Science Education, New York, NY, USA. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    When using Ortiz et al.'s augmented reality serious game, students could better comprehend the subject taught and greatly valued its motivating aspects.

    “when using the application, students could better comprehend the subject taught, and they greatly valued its motivating aspects which encouraged them to revise the study material.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [34] Ortiz, G., Garcia-de-Prado, A., Boubeta-Puig, J., and Cwierz, H. (2020, January 16–18). A mobile application as didactic material to improve learning on distributed architectures. Proceedings of the 2020 International Conference on Computational Science and Computational Intelligence (CSCI), Las Vegas, NV, USA. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The application's suitability as an effective learning tool that enables students to be engaged and motivated, pursue increased academic achievements, and cultivate proper learning habits and behaviors was shown.

    “its suitability as an effective learning tool that enables students to be engaged and motivated, pursue increased academic achievements, and cultivate proper learning habits and behaviors was shown”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The application yielded several educational benefits and was assessed as an effective educational means that can enrich and improve the educational process.

    “The application yielded several educational benefits and was assessed as an effective educational means that can enrich and improve the educational process.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The participants' familiarity with using mobile applications could have influenced their opinions regarding the usability and learnability of the application.

    “their familiarity could have influenced their opinions regarding the usability and learnability of the application”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
72 of 72

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Students' self-reported perspectives and attitudes about the application are valid indicators of the actual educational benefits and learning outcomes of using it.

    “This section goes over the results of this study which are based on higher education students' perspectives and attitudes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Students' self-reported questionnaire responses accurately reflect their actual experiences with and attitudes toward the application.

    “Students were mostly positive about using the application frequently (87.18%)”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The 117 participating students are representative of higher education computer science students to whom the conclusions are generalised.

    “The participants were 117 higher education students from a 5-year degree department that specializes in information and electronic engineering.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The questionnaire items validly and reliably measure the constructs (usability, game experience, motivation, emotions, needs, educational benefits) they are intended to measure.

    “The paper-based questionnaire used consisted of 49 items and mostly adopted 1-5 Likert scales.”
4 of 4

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Eight groups of 20-23 exceed the stated sample size

    Major

    The paper reports 117 participants, but eight groups of at least 20 students would require at least 160 participants.

    Reported 117 · recomputed 160

  • Competence score does not use the stated GEQ items

    Major

    Table 3 says competence uses items 1 and 9 and reports 3.69. Their means in Table 2 are 4.36 and 3.68, giving 4.02; the reported score instead uses item 2, whose mean is 3.70.

    Reported 3.69 · recomputed 4.02

  • Agreement percentages are described as strong agreement

    Minor

    The stated 92.31% and 90.59% combine "Agree" and "Strongly Agree." Table 6 shows that only 38.46% and 46.15%, respectively, strongly agreed.

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 3

  1. Lampropoulos, G., Anastasiadis, T., and Siakas, K. (2019, January 16). Digital game-based learning in education: Significance of motivating, engaging and interactive learning environments. Proceedings of the 25th International Conference on Software Process Improvement-Research into Education and Training (INSPIRE), Southampton, UK.
  2. Lampropoulos, G. (2023). Augmented Reality and Artificial Intelligence: The Fusion of Advanced Technologies, Springer Nature.
  3. Stefanidi, E., Arampatzis, D., Leonidis, A., Korozi, M., Antona, M., and Papagiannakis, G. (2020). Transactions on Computational Science XXXVII, Springer.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Lampropoulos, G., Keramopoulos, E., Diamantaras, K., & Evangelidis, G.
Affiliations
  • Department of Information and Electronic Engineering, International Hellenic University, 57400 Thessaloniki, Greece
  • International Hellenic University (GR)
  • University of Macedonia (GR)
ORCID
Venue
Education Sciences
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2023-06-16
Volume
13
Issue
6
Pages
618
ISSN
2227-7102 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/educsci13060618
OpenAlex
W4381251916
Semantic Scholar
79855adbab69f6c5a9825cfcbbc3fed34ee4d5ad
Cited by
94
References
65
Citations by year
2026: 23 · 2025: 39 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 8
FWCI
45.71
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Education Sciences (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
Hellenic Foundation for Research and Innovation (HFRI) (6454)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Games and Gamification
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Augmented Reality Applications
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Multimedia Learning Systems
Keywords
augmented reality, gamification, serious games, computer science education, educational mobile application, student motivation, self-efficacy, immersion, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, autonomy, competence, relatedness, computational thinking, critical thinking, student-centered learning, university students

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-11-02.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-11-02.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review