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Cited by 7Exercise and Physiological ResponsesGut microbiota and healthMuscle metabolism and nutrition

Spirulina Supplementation Alleviates Intense Exercise-Induced Damage and Modulates Gut Microbiota in Mice

Open access
Wang, Chunxia, Liu, Huijuan, Zhang, Shuyu, Ren, Chengyi, Xu, Jiaming, Chen, Juanjuan, Chen, Haimin, Wu, Wei·2025·Nutrients
DOI 10.3390/nu17020355PMC PMC11768171
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Abstract

Background: Spirulina, which are filamentous cyanobacteria, have gained significant popularity in the food industry, medicine, and aquaculture. Methods: In this study, our objective was to explore the influence of Spirulina on the gut microbiota and exercise capacity of mice undergoing high-intensity exercise. Twenty-four male BALB/c mice were divided into four groups, with six mice in each group. These groups included the control group (Control, in which the mice received saline gavage and were permitted free movement), the exercise group (Running, in which the mice were gavaged with the same volume of saline and subjected to a structured exercise regimen), and the Spirulina intervention groups (including Spirulina Low and Spirulina High). In the Spirulina intervention groups, the mice were orally administered with Spirulina at doses of 100 and 300 mg/kg/day for four weeks while simultaneously participating in the exercise protocol. Results: The results illustrated that the Running group mice subjected to intense exercise exhibited reduced weight and tension, acute damage to muscle and liver tissues, oxidative stress, and an imbalance in the gut microbiota compared with that of the Control group. However, high-concentration Spirulina supplementation was found to increase the tensile strength of the exercise mice by 1.27 ± 0.19 fold (p

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In male mice subjected to four weeks of high-intensity treadmill exercise, Spirulina supplementation at 300 mg/kg/day improved tensile strength and muscle/liver histology and reversed exercise-induced oxidative stress. Spirulina also shifted gut microbiota composition, with changes correlating with tension and oxidative-stress indicators.

Key findings

  • High-dose Spirulina increased tensile strength by 1.27 ± 0.19 fold versus the Running group (p < 0.05); body-weight increases with low- and high-dose Spirulina were not statistically significant (p > 0.05).
  • In the Spirulina High group, muscle ROS decreased by 39 ± 5.32% (p < 0.01), while T-SOD and CAT increased by 1.11 ± 0.17 fold and 1.19 ± 0.22 fold versus Running (p < 0.01).
  • Running versus Control reduced weight and tension, caused muscle and liver damage, increased oxidative stress, and altered microbiota; Running decreased Bacteroidota and Deferribacter by 68% and 16%, and increased Firmicutes and Desulfobacterota by 1.44 and 11.26 fold. Spirulina High reduced Firmicutes by 87% in a concentration-dependent manner.
  • At genus level, Running increased Lactobacillus and Limosilactobacillus by 40.48 and 17.05 fold, and decreased Ligilactobacillus, Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group, and Muribaculaceae by 32.96%, 69.96%, and 45.16%. Spirulina High elevated Muribaculaceae and Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group by 5.24 and 2.88 fold and reduced Lactobacillus by 52.83% versus Running; Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group negatively correlated with ROS (p < 0.01) and positively with CAT (p < 0.05), while Lactobacillus negatively correlated with tensile strength (p < 0.05).

Methods

  • Twenty-four male BALB/c mice, aged 10 weeks, were divided into four groups (n = 6): Control, Running, Spirulina Low (100 mg/kg/day), and Spirulina High (300 mg/kg/day). Spirulina groups received oral Spirulina for four weeks while exercising.
  • Exercise consisted of treadmill running 4 days/week, 30 min/session at 12 m/min on a 20° inclined treadmill; an exhaustion test progressed from 10 to 16 m/min.
  • Outcomes included body weight, tensile strength, H&E muscle and liver histology, oxidative markers (ROS, T-SOD, CAT), 16S rRNA V3–V4 sequencing, OTU/Venn/NMDS analysis, LEfSe/LDA, and Pearson correlation; statistics used one-way ANOVA and Bartlett’s test.

Limitations

  • The paper states a relatively small sample size, short research period, and lack of data on maintenance of effects after stopping treatment; it also notes no comparison of Spirulina without exercise versus Spirulina plus exercise, and no direct comparison with other supplements such as vitamin C or resveratrol.
  • Evident from the text: the conclusion refers to C57BL/6J mice, whereas the abstract and methods describe male BALB/c mice, an unresolved strain inconsistency.
  • Evident from the text: oxidative markers are described as muscle-related in the abstract/methods but section 3.2 refers to “mouse serum,” creating ambiguity about the measured tissue.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/nu17020355

Cites

38 of 38 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

12 of 25 cited sources checked · 2 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Intense physical exercise has the potential to enhance the generation of free radicals, thereby instigating oxidative stress responses within the organism.

    “Intense physical exercise has the potential to enhance the generation of free radicals, thereby instigating oxidative stress responses within the organism [25].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [25] Meng, Q., and Su, C. (2024). The Impact of Physical Exercise on Oxidative and Nitrosative Stress: Balancing the Benefits and Risks. Antioxidants, 13. source
  • Premisecitation

    Spirulina facilitates convalescence from physical traumas in mice subjected to intense exercise regimens.

    “Spirulina has been empirically demonstrated to facilitate convalescence from physical traumas in mice subjected to intense exercise regimens.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [31] AlFadhly, N.K.Z., Alhelfi, N., and Altemimi, A.B. (2022). Trends and Technological Advancements in the Possible Food Applications of Spirulina and Their Health Benefits: A Review. Molecules, 27. source

      Section 4.2 reports that spirulina aided behavioral recovery in laboratory rats with spinal cord injuries. It does not describe mice subjected to intense exercise or recovery from exercise-related trauma, so those conditions are not supported by this source. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Accumulation of ROS exerts a profound influence on the equilibrium of the gut microbiota, culminating in a diminution of beneficial bacterial populations and a concurrent augmentation of harmful bacteria.

    “The accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) exerts a profound influence on the equilibrium of the gut microbiota, culminating in a diminution of beneficial bacterial populations and a concurrent augmentation of harmful bacteria.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [26] Ballway, J.W., and Song, B. (2021). Translational Approaches with Antioxidant Phytochemicals against Alcohol-Mediated Oxidative Stress, Gut Dysbiosis, Intestinal Barrier Dysfunction, and Fatty Liver Disease. Antioxidants, 10. source

      Section 4.1 reports that alcohol exposure is associated with fewer beneficial genera, including Roseburia and Lactobacillus, and more potentially harmful Proteobacteria. It suggests that a high-ROS environment could help explain the Proteobacteria increase and likely contributes to a decrease in some anaerobes. The claim omits the alcohol-exposure context and states ROS as the established cause of both changes, whereas the paper presents that mechanism as a possibility (page unavailable in our copy). (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Bacterial imbalance constitutes a pivotal determinant impacting both the antioxidant endogenous defense system and physical exercise capacity.

    “This bacterial imbalance constitutes a pivotal determinant impacting both the antioxidant endogenous defense system and physical exercise capacity [26].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [26] Ballway, J.W., and Song, B. (2021). Translational Approaches with Antioxidant Phytochemicals against Alcohol-Mediated Oxidative Stress, Gut Dysbiosis, Intestinal Barrier Dysfunction, and Fatty Liver Disease. Antioxidants, 10. source

      Section 5 links changes in gut microbiota to the amelioration of oxidative stress, providing some support for a relationship between bacterial imbalance and antioxidant-related processes. It does not establish that bacterial imbalance is a pivotal determinant of the endogenous antioxidant defense system, and the searched passages do not link it to physical exercise capacity (no page numbers are available in our copy). (LLM, conf=0.73)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Phycocyanin exhibits antibacterial effects against various pathogens, including Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus.

    “it has been corroborated that phycocyanin exhibits antibacterial effects against various pathogens, including Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus [11]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] Hu, J., Li, Y., Pakpour, S., Wang, S., Pan, Z., Liu, J., Wei, Q., She, J., Cang, H., and Zhang, R.X. (2019). Dose Effects of Orally Administered Spirulina Suspension on Colonic Microbiota in Healthy Mice. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 9. source

      The Discussion (page unavailable) describes Spirulina components as potential prebiotics, and the Results (page unavailable) report changes in mouse colonic microbiota after Spirulina treatment. Searches for phycocyanin, antibacterial activity, and the named pathogens found no passage in our copy addressing whether phycocyanin acts against them. (LLM, conf=0.74)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 18
  • May combine two claims. 17
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 2

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Athletes routinely resort to dietary supplements to expedite the repair process and mitigate oxidative stress-induced injuries after training regimens.

    “athletes routinely resort to dietary supplements to expedite the repair process and mitigate oxidative stress-induced injuries, such as muscle soreness, fatigue, and joint stiffness, that ensue after training regimens [5].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [5] Baceviciene, M., Jankauskiene, R., and Rutkauskaite, R. (2023). The Comparison of Disordered Eating, Body Image, Sociocultural and Coach-Related Pressures in Athletes across Age Groups and Groups of Different Weight Sensitivity in Sports. Nutrients, 15. source

      The Introduction (§1.1; page unavailable) discusses disordered eating, injury risk, and fatigue recovery, but not supplement use to aid repair or reduce oxidative-stress-related injuries. Searches for dietary supplements and oxidative stress found no passage addressing the attributed claim. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Resveratrol has been proven to increase oxidative damage in skeletal muscles after exercise.

    “it has been proven to increase oxidative damage in skeletal muscles after exercise [16].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [16] Anders, 2021, The effects of phosphocreatine disodium salts plus blueberry extract supplementation on muscular strength, power, and endurance, J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. source

      The Background (page unavailable) discusses exercise-related oxidative stress and says antioxidants may attenuate its effects. Neither it nor the Discussion addresses resveratrol or reports that resveratrol increases oxidative damage in skeletal muscle after exercise; searches for “resveratrol” and “resveratrol oxidative damage skeletal muscle exercise” found no such passage. (LLM, conf=0.73)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Spirulina supplementation can mitigate exercise-induced inflammation and prevent skeletal muscle damage in male rugby league players.

    “Mehdi et al. [33] investigated male rugby league players and ascertained that Spirulina supplementation holds the potential to mitigate exercise-induced inflammation and preclude skeletal muscle damage.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] Chaouachi, 2022, Spirulina supplementation prevents exercise-induced lipid peroxidation, inflammation and skeletal muscle damage in elite rugby players, J. Hum. Nutr. Diet. source

      The Discussion (p. 13) says spirulina supplementation potentially prevents exercise-induced inflammation and skeletal muscle damage, supporting the hedged effect claim. However, the Methods in the Abstract (p. 3) identify the participants as elite male Rugby Union players, not rugby league players. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Spirulina has been experimentally proven safe in chronic and acute administrations in the liver, kidneys, reproductive system, and overall human physiology.

    “has been experimentally proven to be safe in both chronic and acute administrations in the liver, kidneys, reproductive system, and overall human physiology [9].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Aimaretti, E., Porchietto, E., Mantegazza, G., Gargari, G., Collotta, D., Einaudi, G., Ferreira Alves, G., Marzani, E., Algeri, A., and Dal Bello, F. (2024). Anti-Glycation Properties of Zinc-Enriched Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina) Contribute to Prevention of Metaflammation in a Diet-Induced Obese Mouse Model. Nutrients, 16. source

      The Discussion reports improved liver-injury markers after chronic administration of zinc-enriched spirulina to high-fat/high-sugar-fed mice, which offers limited support for the liver-related portion of the claim. It does not establish safety under acute administration or assess kidney, reproductive, or overall human safety. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    High-intensity exercise may tend to induce oxidative injury and trigger the generation of reactive oxygen species, causing oxidative damage and harmful effects on human health.

    “a heart rate reaching 70–90% of the maximum heart rate during high-intensity exercise, such as sprinting, heavy-load weightlifting, or competitive sports, may tend to induce oxidative injury and trigger the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Consequently, this causes oxidative damage and has harmful effects on human health [2].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2] Arazi, H., Eghbali, E., and Suzuki, K. (2021). Creatine Supplementation, Physical Exercise and Oxidative Stress Markers: A Review of the Mechanisms and Effectiveness. Nutrients, 13. source

      The Introduction and Section 5 state that intense exercise can increase ROS and oxidative stress, and that high ROS levels can cause muscle dysfunction or tissue damage. The paper does not establish the citing sentence’s 70–90% maximum-heart-rate threshold or its specific exercise examples. Its Introduction also says the predominant effect of exercise-related ROS on human health remains controversial, so the unqualified claim of harmful effects on human health goes beyond the source. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Mahmood et al. demonstrated the crucial role of the antioxidant property of Spirulina in protecting against Cyclosporine-induced oxidative stress.

    “Mahmood et al. have further demonstrated the crucial role of the antioxidant property of Spirulina in protecting against Cyclosporine-induced oxidative stress [18].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] Gargouri, 2018, Ameliorative effects of Spirulina platensis against lead-induced nephrotoxicity in newborn rats: Modulation of oxidative stress and histopathological changes, EXCLI J. source

      The Results (Renal lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation and H2O2 levels; page unavailable) report that Spirulina supplementation ameliorated measures of oxidative injury in newborn rats exposed to lead. The cited paper is by Gargouri et al., not Mahmood et al., and its study concerns lead rather than cyclosporine; it does not support the claimed cyclosporine-specific finding. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The Spirulina High group had nearly twice the number of diverse taxa as the Running group, while the Spirulina Low group harbored the lowest taxonomic count.

    “the Spirulina High group boasted nearly twice the number of diverse taxa as the Running group, while the Spirulina Low group harbored the lowest taxonomic count.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingnone given

    Four weeks of exhaustive running exercise caused perturbations in the diversity and richness of the gut microbiota in mice.

    “perturbations in the diversity and richness of the gut microbiota”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Both low and high concentrations of Spirulina elicited a rise in body weight of high-intensity exercise mice, but the rise did not attain statistical significance (p > 0.05).

    “both low and high concentrations of Spirulina elicited a rise in the body weight of high-intensity exercise mice, albeit without attaining statistical significance (p > 0.05).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Each group of mice had unique OTUs, with the Running group having more OTUs than the Control group.

    “Figure 3E shows that each group of mice had its unique OTUs, with the running group having more OTUs than the control group.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There were 130 OTUs in total across the four groups, with unique OTUs of 615 in Control, 1276 in Running, 1808 in Spirulina Low, and 1775 in Spirulina High.

    “In total, there were 130 OTUs across the four groups, with the following unique OTUs: 615 in the Control group, 1276 in the Running group, 1808 in the Spirulina Low group, and 1775 in the Spirulina High group.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    High-concentration Spirulina supplementation led to a 39 ± 5.32% reduction in ROS levels compared with the Running group (p < 0.01).

    “the administration of high-concentration Spirulina led to a remarkable 39 ± 5.32% reduction in ROS levels (p < 0.01).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    High-concentration Spirulina ameliorated muscle damage in exercise mice, with gradual restoration of uniform fibers and reduced muscle fibrosis compared with the Running group.

    “Upon intervention with high concentrations of Spirulina, the damaged musculature of exercise mice underwent a gradual restoration process mediated by uniform fibers. This led to a more favorable preservation of muscle fiber dimensions post-injury and a concomitant substantial diminution in muscle fibrosis compared with that of the Running group (Figure 1C).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The Control and Running groups shared 198 OTUs, while the Running and Spirulina High groups shared 589 OTUs.

    “The Control and Running groups shared 198 OTUs, while the Running and Spirulina High groups shared 589 OTUs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In elite college athletes, the average daily intake of Spirulina is 6 g, equivalent to 6 g per 60 kg body weight per day (approximately 100 mg/kg/day).

    “In elite college athletes, the average daily intake of Spirulina is 6 g, which is equivalent to 6 g per 60 kg of body weight per day (approximately 100 milligrams per kilogram per day) [17].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [17] Zhang, Y., Zhang, Y., Wu, W., Xu, Y., Li, X., Qiu, Q., and Chen, H. (2022). Effects on Spirulina Supplementation on Immune Cells’ Parameters of Elite College Athletes. Nutrients, 14. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Vitamins C and E can reduce oxidative stress, but they do not improve biomarkers for acute exercise-related muscle injury or soreness, nor enhance football performance in young athletes.

    “Oliveira et al. found that vitamins C and E can reduce oxidative stress, but they do not improve biomarkers for acute exercise-related muscle injury or soreness, nor enhance football performance in young athletes [13].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Rosa, 2019, Antioxidant vitamin supplementation prevents oxidative stress but does not enhance performance in young football athletes, Nutrition

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Spirulina is classified as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) by the U.S. FDA.

    “It is classified as ‘Generally Recognized as Safe’ (GRAS) by the U.S. FDA [10].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [10] Paraskevopoulou, A., Kaloudis, T., Hiskia, A., Steinhaus, M., Dimotikali, D., and Triantis, T.M. (2024). Volatile Profiling of Spirulina Food Supplements. Foods, 13. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Male BALB/c mice, aged 10 weeks, were randomly stratified into four discrete cohorts.

    “Male BALB/c mice, aged 10 weeks, were randomly stratified into four discrete cohorts”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Spirulina can effectively mitigate acute damage to muscles and the liver induced by intense exercise in mice by enhancing antioxidant capacity and regulating the gut microbiota.

    “Spirulina can effectively mitigate the acute damage to muscles and the liver induced by intense exercise in mice by enhancing antioxidant capacity and regulating the gut microbiota”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: There is a dearth of reports concerning antioxidant levels, the amelioration of oxidative damage, and the regulatory influence on gut microbiota exerted by Spirulina within sports populations.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group may play a role in reducing fat and regulating antioxidant activity.

    “suggest that the Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group may play a role in reducing fat and regulating antioxidant activity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [36] Liu, 2023, Acer truncatum leaves extract modulates gut microbiota, improves antioxidant capacity, and alleviates lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in broilers, Poult. Sci. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The study had a relatively small sample size.

    “the sample size is relatively small”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Certain dietary adjuncts may inadvertently give rise to substances that are prohibited in competitive settings or even aggravate the progression of oxidative damage.

    “Certain dietary adjuncts may inadvertently give rise to substances that are prohibited in competitive settings or even aggravate the progression of oxidative damage [12].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] Placentino, U., Sogari, G., Viscecchia, R., De Devitiis, B., and Monacis, L. (2021). The New Challenge of Sports Nutrition: Accepting Insect Food as Dietary Supplements in Professional Athletes. Foods, 10. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Spirulina supplementation enhances the diversity and richness of the microbiota in high-intensity exercise mice.

    “This augmentation attests to the capacity of Spirulina supplementation to enhance the diversity and richness of the microbiota in high-intensity exercise mice.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Spirulina contains flavonoids and phenolic acids and has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and hepatoprotective properties.

    “Fatma et al. [32] identified that Spirulina is replete with flavonoids and phenolic acids, endowing it with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and hepatoprotective properties.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32] Arrari, F., Jabri, M.-A., and Ayari, A. (2023). Chromatographic Analyses of Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) and Mechanism of Its Protective Effects against Experimental Obesity and Hepatic Steatosis in Rats. Med. Lith., 59. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Cells have evolved endogenous antioxidant defense mechanisms that secrete antioxidant enzymes such as SOD and HO-1 to counteract oxidative stress.

    “cells have evolved intricate endogenous antioxidant defense mechanisms. These mechanisms operate by secreting a repertoire of antioxidant enzymes, such as SOD and HO-1, to counteract oxidative stress [3].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [3] Ayaz, A., Zaman, W., Radák, Z., and Gu, Y. (2024). Harmony in Motion: Unraveling the Nexus of Sports, Plant-Based Nutrition, and Antioxidants for Peak Performance. Antioxidants, 13. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The study did not directly compare the efficacy of Spirulina with that of other supplements (such as vitamin C and resveratrol).

    “the article did not directly compare the efficacy of Spirulina with that of other supplements (such as vitamin C and resveratrol)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Vitamin E may aggravate oxidative stress due to lipid peroxidation and inflammation in active individuals.

    “in active individuals, it may aggravate oxidative stress due to lipid peroxidation and inflammation [14].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [14] Li, 2022, Potential harms of supplementation with high doses of antioxidants in athletes, J. Exerc. Sci. Fit. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The research period was short.

    “the research period is short”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Spirulina has been shown to regulate the intestinal microbiome and promote the growth of beneficial bacteria, such as Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus.

    “Spirulina has been shown to regulate the intestinal microbiome and promote the growth of beneficial bacteria, such as Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus [11].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] Hu, J., Li, Y., Pakpour, S., Wang, S., Pan, Z., Liu, J., Wei, Q., She, J., Cang, H., and Zhang, R.X. (2019). Dose Effects of Orally Administered Spirulina Suspension on Colonic Microbiota in Healthy Mice. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 9. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The study lacked a comparison between the effects of Spirulina without exercise and the combined effects of Spirulina and exercise.

    “the study also lacks a comparison between the effects of Spirulina without exercise and the combined effects of Spirulina and exercise”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Exogenous dietary antioxidants interact with endogenous antioxidants, constituting a cellular antioxidant network.

    “exogenous dietary antioxidants engage in interactions with endogenous antioxidants, thereby constituting a cellular antioxidant network [4].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4] Rodella, U., Honisch, C., Gatto, C., Ruzza, P., and D’Amato Tóthová, J. (2023). Antioxidant Nutraceutical Strategies in the Prevention of Oxidative Stress Related Eye Diseases. Nutrients, 15. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The study lacked data on the maintenance of the effects of Spirulina after stopping treatment.

    “there is a lack of data on the maintenance of the effects of Spirulina after stopping treatment”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The degree of histologic damage was evaluated in a blinded fashion by expert histologists.

    “The degree of histologic damage was evaluated in a blinded fashion by expert histologists.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    300 mg/kg of Spirulina has significant therapeutic potential in the management of inflammatory pain disorders.

    “Mariana et al. have shown that 300 milligrams per kilogram of Spirulina holds significant therapeutic potential in the management of inflammatory pain disorders [20].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [20] Freitas, M.A., Vasconcelos, A., Gonçalves, E.C.D., Ferrarini, E.G., Vieira, G.B., Cicia, D., Cola, M., Capasso, R., and Dutra, R.C. (2021). Involvement of Opioid System and TRPM8/TRPA1 Channels in the Antinociceptive Effect of Spirulina platensis. Biomolecules, 11. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Spirulina is an efficacious natural supplement capable of enhancing bodily resilience and mitigating the adverse impacts of vigorous exercise on oxidative stress and gut flora configuration.

    “Spirulina seemingly constitutes an efficacious natural supplement capable of enhancing bodily resilience and mitigating the adverse impacts of vigorous exercise on oxidative stress and gut flora configuration.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
35 of 35

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is a dearth of reports concerning antioxidant levels, the amelioration of oxidative damage, and the regulatory influence on gut microbiota exerted by Spirulina within sports populations.

    “However, to date, there remains a dearth of reports concerning antioxidant levels, the amelioration of oxidative damage, and regulatory influence on the gut microbiota exerted by Spirulina within sports populations.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The mouse running exhaustion model bears similarities to the physiological load endured by athletes during competitions or specific training periods.

    “This exercise model bears similarities to the physiological load endured by athletes during competitions or specific training periods, such as long-distance running, sprinting, soccer, basketball, and so on.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Spirulina is rich in many polysaccharides, such as Spirulina polysaccharides and sulfated polysaccharides.

    “Spirulina is rich in many polysaccharides, such as Spirulina polysaccharides and sulfated polysaccharides.”
3 of 3

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Conclusion names a different mouse strain

    Major

    The methods identify the experimental mice as BALB/c, but the conclusion says the findings were obtained in C57BL/6J mice.

  • Oxidative markers are assigned to different sample types

    Minor

    The methods say ROS, T-SOD, and CAT were measured in mouse muscles, whereas the results describe examining those markers in mouse serum.

  • Exercise schedule is described as both nightly and four days per week

    Minor

    One methods passage says exercise and training took place every night; another specifies four days of activity per week during the four-week regimen.

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Liu, 2020, High-intensity exercise training in mice with cardiomyocyte-specific disruption of Serca2, J. Appl. Physiol., 128, 1159

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Wang, C., Liu, H., Zhang, S., Ren, C., Xu, J., Chen, J., Chen, H., & Wu, W.
Affiliations
Ningbo University (CN)
Corresponding author
  • Chen, Haimin
  • Wu, Wei
ORCID
Venue
Nutrients
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2025-01-20
Volume
17
Issue
2
Pages
355
ISSN
2072-6643 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/nu17020355
PMC
PMC11768171
OpenAlex
W4406618063
Semantic Scholar
7547873628ea0f8840831fefd81246bee9b23066
Cited by
7
References
37
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 5
FWCI
2.20
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Nutrients (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • Key Program of Science and Technology Innovation in Ningbo (2023Z118, LTGN24C200001, CARS-50, 2022FZ003)
  • Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (2023Z118, LTGN24C200001, CARS-50, 2022FZ003)
  • China Agriculture Research System of MOF and MARA (2023Z118, LTGN24C200001, CARS-50, 2022FZ003)
  • Whalley Fund project (2023Z118, LTGN24C200001, CARS-50, 2022FZ003)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Rehabilitation › Exercise and Physiological Responses
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
Keywords
Spirulina, high-intensity exercise, exercise-induced muscle damage, gut microbiota, oxidative stress, antioxidant capacity, exercise capacity, reactive oxygen species, superoxide dismutase, catalase, dietary supplementation, cyanobacteria
MeSH terms
Gastrointestinal Microbiome, Animals, Antioxidants, Liver, Male, Mice, Inbred BALB C, Physical Conditioning, Animal, Oxidative Stress, Muscle, Skeletal, Dietary Supplements, Mice, Spirulina

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-11-06.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-11-06.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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