Health effects of protein intake in healthy adults: a systematic literature review
Open accessAbstract
The purpose of this systematic review is to assess the evidence behind the dietary requirement of protein and to assess the health effects of varying protein intake in healthy adults. The literature search covered the years 2000–2011. Prospective cohort, case-control, and intervention studies were included. Out of a total of 5,718 abstracts, 412 full papers were identified as potentially relevant, and after careful scrutiny, 64 papers were quality graded as A (highest), B, or C. The grade of evidence was classified as convincing, probable, suggestive or inconclusive. The evidence is assessed as: probable for an estimated average requirement of 0.66 g good-quality protein/kg body weight (BW)/day based on nitrogen balance studies, suggestive for a relationship between increased all-cause mortality risk and long-term low-carbohydrate–high-protein (LCHP) diets; but inconclusive for a relationship between all-cause mortality risk and protein intake per se; suggestive for an inverse relationship between cardiovascular mortality and vegetable protein intake; inconclusive for relationships between cancer mortality and cancer diseases, respectively, and protein intake; inconclusive for a relationship between cardiovascular diseases and total protein intake; suggestive for an inverse relationship between blood pressure (BP) and vegetable protein; probable to convincing for an inverse relationship between soya protein intake and LDL cholesterol; inconclusive for a relationship between protein intake and bone health, energy intake, BW control, body composition, renal function, and risk of kidney stones, respectively; suggestive for a relationship between increased risk of type 2 diabetes (T2D) and long-term LCHP-high-fat diets; inconclusive for impact of physical training on protein requirement; and suggestive for effect of physical training on whole-body protein retention. In conclusion, the evidence is assessed as probable regarding the estimated requirement based on nitrogen balance studies, and suggestive to inconclusive for protein intake and mortality and morbidity. Vegetable protein intake was associated with decreased risk in many studies. Potentially adverse effects of a protein intake exceeding 20–23 E% remain to be investigated. Keywords: protein requirement; nitrogen balance; animal protein; vegetable protein; mortality; chronic disease; Nordic nutrition recommendations (Published: 30 July 2013) Citation: Food & Nutrition Research 2013. 57: 21245 - http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/fnr.v57i0.21245 Access the supplementary material to this article – see Supplementary files under Article Tools online. Special Issue: This paper is part of the Nordic Nutrition Recommendations - The NNR5 project. More papers from this issue can be found at http://www.foodandnutritionresearch.net
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- [7]NNR5 Working Group A guide for conducting systematic literature reviews for the 5th edition of the Nordic nutrition recommendations 2011 Revised ed Copenhagen Nordic Council of Ministers
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Dietary protein intake and human health
Wu, G. (2016) · Food & Function · doi:10.1039/c5fo01530h · Cited by 748 · see citing works
Japanese clinical practice guideline for diabetes 2019
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Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023
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Nutrition and Kidney Stone Disease
Siener, R. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13061917 · Cited by 369 · see citing works
Japanese Clinical Practice Guideline for Diabetes 2019
Araki, E., Goto, A., Kondo, T., Noda, M., Noto, H., Origasa, H., Osawa, H., Taguchi, A., Tanizawa, Y., Tobe, K., et al. (2020) · Journal of Diabetes Investigation · doi:10.1111/jdi.13306 · Cited by 346 · see citing works
Metabolic syndrome: risk factors, diagnosis, pathogenesis, and management with natural approaches
Mohamed, S. M., Shalaby, M. A., El‐Shiekh, R. A., El-Banna, H. A., Emam, S. R., & Bakr, A. F. (2023) · Food Chemistry Advances · doi:10.1016/j.focha.2023.100335 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
Nutritional Value of Commercial Protein-Rich Plant Products
Mattila, P. H., Mäkinen, S., Eurola, M., Jalava, T., Pihlava, J., Hellström, J., & Pihlanto, A. (2018) · Plant Foods for Human Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s11130-018-0660-7 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
The impact of low-protein high-carbohydrate diets on aging and lifespan
Le Couteur, D. G., Solon-Biet, S., Cogger, V. C., Mitchell, S. J., Senior, A., de Cabo, R., Raubenheimer, D., & Simpson, S. J. (2016) · Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences · doi:10.1007/s00018-015-2120-y · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Putting the Balance Back in Diet
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Oliveira, S. M., Brandão, T. R. S., & Silva, C. L. M. (2015) · Food Engineering Reviews · doi:10.1007/s12393-015-9124-0 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Dietary protein, aging and nutritional geometry
Simpson, S. J., Le Couteur, D. G., Raubenheimer, D., Solon-Biet, S. M., Cooney, G. J., Cogger, V. C., & Fontana, L. (2017) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2017.03.001 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Isanejad, M., Mursu, J., Sirola, J., Kröger, H., Rikkonen, T., Tuppurainen, M., & Erkkila, A. (2016) · British Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s000711451600012x · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Dietary strategies implicated in the prevention and treatment of metabolic syndrome
De la Iglesia, R., Loria-Kohen, V., Zulet, M., Martinez, J., Reglero, G., & Ramirez de Molina, A. (2016) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms17111877 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Dietary Protein and Energy Balance in Relation to Obesity and Co-morbidities
Drummen, M., Tischmann, L., Gatta-Cherifi, B., Adam, T., & Westerterp-Plantenga, M. (2018) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2018.00443 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Bechthold, A., Boeing, H., Tetens, I., Schwingshackl, L., & Nöthlings, U. (2018) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/advances/nmy033 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Deng, F. E., Shivappa, N., Tang, Y., Mann, J. R., & Hébert, J. R. (2016) · European Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s00394-016-1158-4 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Animal and Plant Protein Sources and Cardiometabolic Health
Mariotti, F. (2018) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/advances/nmy110 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Contents of phytochemicals and antinutritional factors in commercial protein-rich plant products
Mattila, P. H., Pihlava, J., Hellström, J., Nurmi, M., Eurola, M., Mäkinen, S., Jalava, T., & Pihlanto, A. (2018) · Food Quality and Safety · doi:10.1093/fqsafe/fyy021 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Päivärinta, E., Itkonen, S. T., Pellinen, T., Lehtovirta, M., Erkkola, M., & Pajari, A. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12040943 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Human Protein and Amino Acid Requirements
Hoffer, L. J. (2016) · Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition · doi:10.1177/0148607115624084 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Hill, C. M., Albarado, D. C., Coco, L. G., Spann, R. A., Khan, M. S., Qualls-Creekmore, E., Burk, D. H., Burke, S. J., Collier, J. J., Yu, S., et al. (2022) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-022-29499-8 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Rao, M., Bast, A., & de Boer, A. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13084428 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Nutritional profile of Indian vegetarian diets – the Indian Migration Study (IMS)
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Nutritional Metabolomics and the Classification of Dietary Biomarker Candidates: A Critical Review
Rafiq, T., Azab, S. M., Teo, K. K., Thabane, L., Anand, S. S., Morrison, K. M., de Souza, R. J., & Britz‐McKibbin, P. (2021) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/advances/nmab054 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
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Impact of Low Maternal Education on Early Childhood Overweight and Obesity in Europe
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van Nielen, M., Feskens, E. J. M., Rietman, A., Siebelink, E., & Mensink, M. (2014) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.3945/jn.114.193706 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Animal Proteins as Important Contributors to a Healthy Human Diet
Elmadfa, I., & Meyer, A. L. (2016) · Annual Review of Animal Biosciences · doi:10.1146/annurev-animal-022516-022943 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
The Geometric Framework for Nutrition as a tool in precision medicine
Simpson, S. J., Couteur, D. G. L., James, D. E., George, J., Gunton, J. E., Solon‐Biet, S. M., & Raubenheimer, D. (2017) · Nutrition and Healthy Aging · doi:10.3233/nha-170027 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Metabolic effects of glucagon in humans
Adeva-Andany, M. M., Funcasta-Calderón, R., Fernández-Fernández, C., Castro-Quintela, E., & Carneiro-Freire, N. (2019) · Journal of Clinical & Translational Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.jcte.2018.12.005 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Reactive nitrogen compounds and their influence on human health: an overview
Nieder, R., & Benbi, D. K. (2021) · Reviews on Environmental Health · doi:10.1515/reveh-2021-0021 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
High dietary protein intake is associated with an increased body weight and total death risk
Hernández‐Alonso, P., Salas‐Salvadó, J., Ruiz‐Canela, M., Corella, D., Estruch, R., Fitó, M., Arós, F., Gómez‐Gracia, E., Fiol, M., Lapetra, J., et al. (2015) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2015.03.016 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
New Horizons: Dietary protein, ageing and the Okinawan ratio
Couteur, D. G. L., Solon‐Biet, S. M., Wahl, D., Cogger, V. C., Willcox, B. J., Willcox, D. C., Raubenheimer, D., & Simpson, S. J. (2016) · Age and Ageing · doi:10.1093/ageing/afw069 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Role of Childhood Food Patterns on Adult Cardiovascular Disease Risk
Kaikkonen, J., Mikkilä, V., & Raitakari, O. T. (2014) · Current Atherosclerosis Reports · doi:10.1007/s11883-014-0443-z · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Vuholm, S., Nielsen, D. S., Iversen, K., Suhr, J., Westermann, P., Krych, Ł., Andersen, J. R., & Kristensen, M. (2017) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.3945/jn.117.250647 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Virtanen, H. E., Koskinen, T. T., Voutilainen, S., Mursu, J., Tuomainen, T., Kokko, P., & Virtanen, J. K. (2017) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114517000745 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Beasley, J. M., LaCroix, A. Z., Larson, J. C., Huang, Y., Neuhouser, M. L., Tinker, L. F., Jackson, R. D., Snetselaar, L. G., Johnson, K., Eaton, C. B., et al. (2014) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.113.076786 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Martin, C., Gowda, U., & Renzaho, A. M. N. (2015) · Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.nut.2015.07.007 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Capurso, C. A. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13082540 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
A Systematic Review of Methods to Assess Children's Diets in the School Context
Tugault-Lafleur, C. N., Black, J., & Barr, S. I. (2017) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.3945/an.116.013144 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Does eating less make you live longer and better? An update on calorie restriction
Picca, A., Pesce, V., & Lezza, A. M. S. (2017) · Clinical Interventions in Aging · doi:10.2147/cia.s126458 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Type 2 Diabetes in the Elderly: Challenges in a Unique Patient Population
Bradley, D. P. (2016) · Journal of Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology · doi:10.23937/2469-5858/1510014 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
The Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2022 – prioritisation of topics for de novo systematic reviews
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Effect of diet composition on insulin sensitivity in humans
Adeva-Andany, M. M., González-Lucán, M., Fernández-Fernández, C., Carneiro-Freire, N., Seco-Filgueira, M., & Pedre-Piñeiro, A. M. (2019) · Clinical Nutrition ESPEN · doi:10.1016/j.clnesp.2019.05.014 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Markova, M., Koelman, L., Hornemann, S., Pivovarova, O., Sucher, S., Machann, J., Rudovich, N., Thomann, R., Schneeweiss, R., Rohn, S., et al. (2020) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2019.03.019 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Lamberg-Allardt, C. J. E., Bärebring, L., Arnesen, E., Nwaru, B. I., Þórisdóttir, B., Ramel, A., Söderlund, F., Dierkes, J., & Åkesson, A. (2023) · Food & Nutrition Research · doi:10.29219/fnr.v67.9003 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Dietary Protein Is Important in the Practical Management of Prediabetes and Type 2 Diabetes
Campbell, A. P., & Rains, T. M. (2014) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.3945/jn.114.194878 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Trends in the dietary patterns of Mexican adults by sociodemographic characteristics
Pérez-Tepayo, S., Rodríguez‐Ramírez, S., Unar‐Munguía, M., & Shamah‐Levy, T. (2020) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/s12937-020-00568-2 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Public health risks and benefits associated with breast milk and infant formula consumption
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Early life nutrition and the opportunity to influence long-term health: an Australasian perspective
Davies, P. S. W., Funder, J. W., Palmer, D. J., Sinn, J. K. H., Vickers, M. H., Wall, C. R., & Party, A. T. A. A. N. Z. E. L. N. W. (2016) · Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease · doi:10.1017/s2040174415007989 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
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Dietary protein intake and change in estimated GFR in the Cardiovascular Health Study
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Characterization of Calcium Compounds in Opuntia ficus indica as a Source of Calcium for Human Diet
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The meal as a performance: food and meal practices beyond health and nutrition
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Research advances in the therapy of metabolic syndrome
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Dietary habits contribute to define the risk of type 2 diabetes in humans
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New Nordic Nutrition Recommendations are here
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Dietary Protein, Exercise, and Frailty Domains
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Frailty Pathogenesis, Assessment, and Management in Older Adults With COVID-19
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Environmental and genetic factors influence the vitamin D content of cows’ milk
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Macronutrient intake and frailty: the Rotterdam Study
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Ethnic Differences in Gestational Weight Gain: A Population-Based Cohort Study in Norway
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Texture modification of food for elderly people
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Amino acids intake and physical fitness among adolescents
On behalf of the HELENA Study Group, Gracia‐Marco, L., Bel‐Serrat, S., Cuenca‐García, M., González‐Gross, M., Pedrero‐Chamizo, R., Μanios, Y., Marcos, A., Molnár, D., Widhalm, K., et al. (2017) · Amino Acids · doi:10.1007/s00726-017-2393-6 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
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Macronutrient modulation of mRNA and microRNA function in animals: A review
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Nordic Crops as Alternatives to Soy—An Overview of Nutritional, Sensory, and Functional Properties
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Protein – a scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023
Geirsdóttir, Ó. G., & Pajari, A. (2023) · Food & Nutrition Research · doi:10.29219/fnr.v67.10261 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
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Protein intake and obesity in young adolescents
Xu, S., & Xue, Y. (2016) · Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine · doi:10.3892/etm.2016.3137 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Changes in diet quality during a 12 month weight loss randomised controlled trial
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TNF-α modulation by natural bioactive molecules in mouse RAW 264.7 macrophage cells
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- Authors
- Pedersen, A. N., Kondrup, J., & Børsheim, E.
- Affiliations
- Technical University of Denmark (DK)
- Copenhagen University Hospital (DK)
- The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston (US)
- Corresponding author
- Pedersen, Agnes N.
- ORCID
- Børsheim, Elisabet
- Venue
- Food & Nutrition Research
- Publisher
- SNF Swedish Nutrition Foundation
- Published
- 2013-01
- Volume
- 57
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 21245
- ISSN
- 1654-661X (ISSN-L)
- 1654-6628
- PMC
- PMC3730112
- OpenAlex
- W2022177344
- Cited by
- 167
- References
- 89
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 26 · 2015: 13 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 2
- FWCI
- 1.99
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Food & Nutrition Research (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Diet and metabolism studies
- Keywords
- protein intake, protein requirements, nitrogen balance, plant proteins, animal protein, all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, cancer mortality, type 2 diabetes, LDL cholesterol, blood pressure, bone health, kidney stones, renal function, body composition, weight management, exercise training, protein retention, high-protein low-carbohydrate diet, Nordic Nutrition Recommendations, healthy adults, energy intake, body weight
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