Pigeons learn to answer the question “where did you just peck?” and can report peck location when unexpectedly asked
Open accessAbstract
If pigeons are trained on matching-to-sample with differential responding required to the two samples, there is evidence that the differential responding can control comparison choice. We asked whether similar responding required at two different locations could also serve as the basis for comparison choice. Pigeons were pretrained to report the location that they had pecked. To reduce the likelihood that they could use the presence of differential proprioceptive cues at the time of their report, a common response was required between the location response and the comparison choice. They were then given experience with a conditional discrimination in which location of the comparison response varied randomly and was incidental to the choice of comparison. On test trials, after the pigeons had made their comparison choice, they showed a significant tendency to choose the appropriate test comparison when they were unexpectedly asked to report the location of their previous pecking response. These results have implications for the demonstration of episodic-like memory in pigeons because they suggest that pigeons have the capacity to recall, unexpectedly, specific details about their past experiences.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Multiple non-human species are able to encode and recall incidental information within remembered events.
“These studies demonstrate that multiple non-human species are able to encode and recall incidental information within remembered events, such as spatial locations [80,81,83,93,97,98], visual markers [92], the identity of experimenters [83], the presence (or absence) of food [74,82], odour cues [94], as well as aspects of their own [79–81,93,95] and other’s behaviour [96].”
From Is episodic-like memory <i>like</i> episodic memory? (2024) · cites this paper as [80]
Training animals to explicitly encode and report information in an anticipated memory test may result in the application of non-episodic mechanisms to solve these tasks.
“That said, training animals to explicitly encode and report information in an anticipated memory test, as is required for what–where–when memory experiments, may result in the application of non-episodic mechanisms to solve these tasks [74,79–84].”
From Is episodic-like memory <i>like</i> episodic memory? (2024) · cites this paper as [80]
Some studies use non-natural methodological elements to test for episodic-like memory, such as pecking or approaching shapes or coloured panels, or requiring subjects to recall their own or others' previous actions out of an array of behaviours.
“Some studies, however, use non-natural methodological elements to test for episodic-like memory [75], such as pecking or approaching certain shapes or coloured panels that are presented in front of the subjects [56,78–81], or requiring subjects to recall their own or others’ previous actions out of an array of behaviours [95,96].”
From Is episodic-like memory <i>like</i> episodic memory? (2024) · cites this paper as [80]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
(2007) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.4135/9781446212967.n15 · Cited by 3,749 · see citing works
How many memory systems are there?
Tulving, E. (1985) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.40.4.385 · Cited by 1,909 · see citing works
Can animals recall the past and plan for the future?
Clayton, N. S., Bussey, T. J., & Dickinson, A. (2003) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn1180 · Cited by 658 · see citing works
DELAYED MATCHING IN THE PIGEON
Blough, D. S. (1959) · Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior · doi:10.1901/jeab.1959.2-151 · Cited by 436 · see citing works
Clayton, N. S., & Dickinson, A. (1999) · Journal of Comparative Psychology · doi:10.1037/0735-7036.113.4.403 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
Episodic-like memory in pigeons
Zentall, T. R., Clement, T. S., Bhatt, R. S., & Allen, J. (2001) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196204 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Self-citationAbstract concept learning in the pigeon.
Zentall, T. R., & Hogan, D. E. (1974) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0035970 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Self-citationClayton, N. S., Yu, K. S., & Dickinson, A. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes · doi:10.1037/0097-7403.29.1.14 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Discrimination of what, when, and where is not based on time of day
Babb, S. J., & Crystal, J. D. (2006) · Learning & Behavior · doi:10.3758/bf03193188 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Memory for the content of caches by scrub jays (Aphelocoma coerulescens).
Clayton, N. S., & Dickinson, A. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Animal Behavior Processes · doi:10.1037/0097-7403.25.1.82 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Control of choice in conditional discriminations by sample-specific behaviors.
Urcuioli, P. J., & Honig, W. K. (1980) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Animal Behavior Processes · doi:10.1037/0097-7403.6.3.251 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Mental time travel in animals: A challenging question
Zentall, T. R. (2006) · Behavioural Processes · doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2006.01.009 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Self-citationUrcuioli, P. J., & DeMarse, T. (1994) · Journal of experimental psychology. Animal behavior processes · doi:10.1037//0097-7403.20.3.249 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Urcuioli, P. J., & DeMarse, T. B. (1994) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Animal Behavior Processes · doi:10.1037/0097-7403.20.3.249 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The evolution of episodic memory
Allen, T. A., & Fortin, N. J. (2013) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1301199110 · Cited by 350 · see citing works
Episodic-like memory in animals
Crystal, J. D. (2010) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2010.03.005 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Rats Answer an Unexpected Question after Incidental Encoding
Zhou, W., Hohmann, A. G., & Crystal, J. D. (2012) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2012.04.040 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Episodic memory in animals: Remembering which occasion
Eacott, M. J., & Easton, A. (2009) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.11.002 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Do different tests of episodic memory produce consistent results in human adults?
Cheke, L. G., & Clayton, N. S. (2013) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.030502.113 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Elements of episodic-like memory in animal models
Crystal, J. D. (2009) · Behavioural Processes · doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2008.09.009 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Episodic-like memory: Pigeons can report location pecked when unexpectedly asked
Zentall, T. R., Singer, R. A., & Stagner, J. P. (2008) · Behavioural Processes · doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2008.05.003 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Self-citationRecall of Others’ Actions after Incidental Encoding Reveals Episodic-like Memory in Dogs
Fugazza, C., Pogány, Á., & Miklósi, Á. (2016) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.09.057 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Salwiczek, L. H., Watanabe, A., & Clayton, N. S. (2010) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2010.06.011 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Validation of a rodent model of episodic memory
Zhou, W., & Crystal, J. D. (2011) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-010-0367-0 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Animal models of episodic memory
Crystal, J. D. (2018) · Comparative Cognition & Behavior Reviews · doi:10.3819/ccbr.2018.130012 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Prospective memory in a language-trained chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)
Beran, M. J., Perdue, B. M., Bramlett, J. L., Menzel, C. R., & Evans, T. A. (2012) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2012.05.002 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Remembering the past and planning for the future in rats
Crystal, J. D. (2013) · Behavioural Processes · doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2012.11.014 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Olson, I. R., & Newcombe, N. S. (2013) · doi:10.1002/9781118597705.ch13 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Replay of incidentally encoded episodic memories in the rat
Sheridan, C. L., Lang, S., Knappenberger, M., Albers, C., Loper, R., Tillett, B., Sanchez, J., Wilcox, A., Harrison, T., Panoz-Brown, D., et al. (2024) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2023.12.043 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Animals Represent the past and the Future
Zentall, T. R. (2013) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1177/147470491301100307 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Self-citationAnimal models of source memory
Crystal, J. D. (2015) · Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior · doi:10.1002/jeab.173 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Davies, J. R., Garcia-Pelegrin, E., & Clayton, N. S. (2024) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0301298 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Episodic-like memory in common bottlenose dolphins
Davies, J. R., Garcia-Pelegrin, E., Baciadonna, L., Pilenga, C., Favaro, L., & Clayton, N. S. (2022) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2022.06.032 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Is episodic-like memory <i>like</i> episodic memory?
Davies, J. R., & Clayton, N. S. (2024) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2023.0397 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
The impure phenomenology of episodic memory
Boyle, A. (2019) · Mind & Language · doi:10.1111/mila.12261 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Did the popsicle melt? Preschoolers’ performance in an episodic-like memory task
Martin-Ordas, G., Atance, C. M., & Caza, J. (2017) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2017.1285940 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Use of incidentally encoded memory from a single experience in cats
Takagi, S., Tsuzuki, M., Chijiiwa, H., Arahori, M., Watanabe, A., Saito, A., & Fujita, K. (2017) · Behavioural Processes · doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2016.12.014 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Coding of stimuli by animals: Retrospection, prospection, episodic memory and future planning
Zentall, T. R. (2010) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2010.08.001 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationSato, N. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-81943-9 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Comparative Cognition: Action Imitation Using Episodic Memory
Crystal, J. D. (2016) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.10.010 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Bennett, M. S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.685853 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Episodic-like memory in wild free-living blue tits and great tits
Davies, J. R., Keuneke, L. S., Clayton, N. S., & Davidson, G. L. (2024) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2024.06.029 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Stark, S. M., & Stark, C. E. L. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-407794-2.00067-5 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Aging-related episodic-like memory decline in dogs
Sanches, F. J., de Melo, J. C., Ferreira, S. P., Trinca, L. A., Arambula, O. G., Padovani, F. H. P., Schelp, A. O., & Amorim, R. M. (2022) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2022.113762 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Easton, A., & Eacott, M. J. (2011) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2011.09.008 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Acetylcholine and Spontaneous Recognition Memory in Rodents and Primates
Easton, A., Barros, M., & Lever, C. (2020) · Current topics in behavioral neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2020_132 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Not so bird-brained: Pigeons show what-where-when memory both as time of day and how long ago.
Meyers-Manor, J. E., Overmier, J. B., Hatfield, D. W., & Croswell, J. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Animal Learning and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xan0000016 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
What did you choose just now? Chimpanzees’ short-term retention of memories of their own behavior
Tomonaga, M., & Kaneko, T. (2014) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.637 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Hoffman, M. L., Beran, M. J., & Washburn, D. A. (2017) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-017-1147-x · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Rats answer an unexpected question after incidental encoding
Zhou, W., & Crystal, J. D. (2011) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e597922013-004 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Three Levels of Consciousness: A Pattern in Phylogeny and Human Ontogeny
Wechsler, B. (2019) · International Journal of Comparative Psychology · doi:10.46867/ijcp.2019.32.00.14 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Incidental spatial memory in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris)
Sluka, C. M., Stanko, K. A., Campbell, A., Cáceres, J., Panoz‐Brown, D., Wheeler, A., Bradley, J., & Allen, C. (2018) · Learning & Behavior · doi:10.3758/s13420-018-0327-0 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Episodic memory in non-humans: an approach to understand an evolutionary function of consciousness
Crystal, J. D. (2025) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2024.0304 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
La mémoire autobiographique/épisodique : le chien, un modèle d’étude ?
Duranton, C., Jeannin, S., Bedossa, T., & Gaunet, F. (2017) · médecine/sciences · doi:10.1051/medsci/20173312016 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Navigating the Interface Between Learning and Cognition
Crystal, J. D. (2011) · International Journal of Comparative Psychology · doi:10.46867/ijcp.2011.24.04.02 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Phylogeny and ontogeny of mental time
Hirata, S., Betsuyaku, T., Fujita, K., Nakano, T., & Ikegaya, Y. (2020) · Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1016/j.neures.2020.07.008 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
RECOLLECTION OF WHAT-WHERE-WHICH MEMORY IN DEGUS (OCTODON DEGUS)
Betsuyaku, T., Tsuzuki, M., & Fujita, K. (2016) · PSYCHOLOGIA · doi:10.2117/psysoc.2016.148 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Zentall, T. R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108770422.018 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationChapter 2.5 Representing past and future events
Zentall, T. R. (2008) · Handbook of behavioral neuroscience · doi:10.1016/s1569-7339(08)00213-0
Self-citationZentall, T. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-1562-0_2
Self-citationヒト以外の動物のエピソード的(episodic-like)記憶
佐藤, 暢. (2010) · Japanese Journal of Animal Psychology
Episodic-like Memory in Dogs: Solving What-Where-When Tasks
Lo, K. H. (2018) · Scholarship@Western (Western University)
Neuroscience: Memory Encoding in the Absence of Cell Firing
Crystal, J. D. (2018) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2018.08.007
Episodic-like memory in non-human animals: What-Where-When memory and mental time travel.
Sato, N. (2010) · Japanese Journal of Animal Psychology · doi:10.2502/janip.60.2.1
Hoffman, M. L. (2022) · Digital Archive @ GSU · doi:10.57709/3211074
Zentall, T. R. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_778-1
Self-citationZentall, T. R. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55065-7_778
Self-citationAmici, F. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-93789-8_14-1
Afecciones que persisten: memoria episódica y ética animal
Corda, G., & Marte͏, F. (2024) · Astrolabio · doi:10.55441/1668.7515.n33.42258
Zentall, T. R. (2025) · Translational Neuroscience · doi:10.1515/tnsci-2025-0383
Self-citation
- Authors
- Singer, R. A., & Zentall, T. R.
- Affiliations
- University of Kentucky (US)
- Corresponding author
- Zentall, Thomas R.
- ORCID
- Zentall, Thomas R.
- Venue
- Learning & Behavior
- Published
- 2007-08
- Volume
- 35
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 184-189
- ISSN
- 1543-4494 (ISSN-L)
- 1543-4508
- OpenAlex
- W1999884740
- Cited by
- 60
- References
- 13
- Citations by year
- 2025: 2 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 2 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 1.67
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Learning & Behavior (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH-63726, R01MH063726)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- pigeons, episodic-like memory, location recall, matching-to-sample, conditional discrimination, differential responding, proprioceptive cues, spatial memory
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Choice Behavior, Color Perception, Conditioning, Operant, Discrimination Learning, Orientation, Columbidae, Mental Recall
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
