How many memory systems are there?

Tulving, Endel

doi:10.1037/0003-066x.40.4.385

Cited by 1,909Memory Processes and InfluencesMemory and Neural MechanismsCognitive Functions and Memory

How many memory systems are there?

Tulving, Endel·1985·American Psychologist

DOI 10.1037/0003-066x.40.4.385

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Memory is made up of a number of interrelated systems, organized structures of operating components consisting of neural substrates and their behavioral and cognitive correlates. A ternary clas- sificatory scheme of is proposed in which procedural, semantic, and episodic constitute a monohierarchical arrangement: Episodic is a specialized subsystem of semantic memory, and semantic is a specialized subsystem of procedural The three systems differ from one another in a number of ways, including the kind of consciousness that characterizes their operations. The ternary scheme overlaps with di- chotomies and trichotomies of proposed by others. Evidence for multiple systems is derived from many sources. Illustrative data are provided by ex- periments in which direct priming effects are found to be both functionally and stochastically independent of recognition Solving puzzles in science has much in common with solving puzzles for amusement, but the two differ in important respects. Consider, for instance, the jigsaw puzzle that scientific activity frequently imitates. The everyday version of the puzzle is determinate: It consists of a target picture and jigsaw pieces that, when properly assembled, are guaranteed to match the picture. Scientific puzzles are indeter- minate: The number of pieces required to complete a picture is unpredictable; a particular piece may fit many pictures or none; it may fit only one picture, but the picture itself may be unknown; or the hypothetical picture may be imagined, but its com- ponent pieces may remain undiscovered. This article is about a current puzzle in the science of It entails an imaginary picture and a search for pieces that fit it. The picture, or the hypothesis, depicts as consisting of a number of systems, each system serving somewhat different purposes and operating according to some- what different principles. Together they form the marvelous capacity that we call by the single name of memory, the capacity that permits organisms to benefit from their past experiences. Such a picture is at variance with conventional wisdom that holds to be essentially a single system, the idea that memory is memory. The article consists of three main sections. In the first, 1 present some pretheoretical reasons for hypothesizing the existence of multiple systems and briefly discuss the concept of system. In the second, I describe a ternary classifi- catory scheme of memory--consisting of procedural, semantic, and episodic memory--and briefly com- pare this scheme with those proposed by others. In the third, I discuss the nature and logic of evidence for multiple systems and describe some experiments that have yielded data revealing independent effects of one and the same act of learning, effects seemingly at variance with the idea of a single system. I answer the question posed in the title of the article in the short concluding section.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/0003-066x.40.4.385

Cites

91 of 91 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Neuropsychological studies and neuroimaging studies have often suggested that DFL changes underlie age-associated deficits in working memory, psychomotor speed, and attention.
“Neuropsychological studies (see ref. 46 for review) and neuroimaging studies (47) have often suggested that DFL changes underlie age-associated deficits in working memory, psychomotor speed, and attention.”
From Prediction of cognitive decline in normal elderly subjects with 2-[ <sup>18</sup> F]fluoro-2-deoxy- <scp>d</scp> -glucose/positron-emission tomography (FDG/PET) (2001) · cites this paper as [46]

Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. B
Press, H. (1886) · Cited by 10,087 · see citing works
Untitled work
(1978) · UA Campus Repository (The University of Arizona) · Cited by 8,010 · see citing works
REMEMBERING: A STUDY IN EXPERIMENTAL AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Bartlett, F. C., & Burt, C. (1933) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1933.tb02913.x · Cited by 7,475 · see citing works
Untitled work
(1983) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 6,051 · see citing works
Memory and consciousness.
Tulving, E. (1985) · Canadian Psychology / Psychologie canadienne · doi:10.1037/h0080017 · Cited by 4,638 · see citing works
Self-citation
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory
Bourne, L. E. (1977) · Cited by 4,328 · see citing works
Two cortical visual systems
Ungerleider, L. G. (1982) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 4,139 · see citing works
Analysis of visual behavior
Ingle, D., Goodale, M. A., & Mansfield, R. J. W. (1982) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 4,131 · see citing works
Object vision and spatial vision: Two cortical pathways
Mishkin, M., Ungerleider, L. G., & Macko, K. A. (1983) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/0166-2236(83)90190-x · Cited by 2,947 · see citing works
On the relationship between autobiographical memory and perceptual learning.
Jacoby, L. L., & Dallas, M. (1981) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037//0096-3445.110.3.306 · Cited by 2,562 · see citing works
Remembering
Bartlett, F. C., & Kintsch, W. (1995) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511759185 · Cited by 2,408 · see citing works
Preserved Learning and Retention of Pattern-Analyzing Skill in Amnesia: Dissociation of Knowing How and Knowing That
Cohen, N. J., & Squire, L. R. (1980) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.7414331 · Cited by 2,296 · see citing works
The Neuropsychology of Memory
Squire, L. R. (1984) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-70094-1_32 · Cited by 2,126 · see citing works
Hippocampus, space, and memory
Olton, D. S., Becker, J. T., & Handelmann, G. E. (1979) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00062713 · Cited by 2,018 · see citing works
Implicit and explicit memory for new associations in normal and amnesic subjects.
Graf, P., & Schacter, D. L. (1985) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.11.3.501 · Cited by 1,872 · see citing works
The nature of explanation
Craik, K. J. W. (1943) · Cited by 1,685 · see citing works
VISUAL CAPACITY IN THE HEMIANOPIC FIELD FOLLOWING A RESTRICTED OCCIPITAL ABLATION
WEISKRANTZ, L., WARRINGTON, E. K., SANDERS, M. D., & MARSHALL, J. (1974) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/97.1.709 · Cited by 1,465 · see citing works
The Neurobiology of Learning and Memory
Thompson, R. F. (1986) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.3738519 · Cited by 1,159 · see citing works
Priming effects in word-fragment completion are independent of recognition memory.
Tulving, E., Schacter, D. L., & Stark, H. A. (1982) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.8.4.336 · Cited by 1,066 · see citing works
Self-citation
The hippocampus and contextual retrieval of information from memory: A theory
Hirsh, R. (1974) · Behavioral Biology · doi:10.1016/s0091-6773(74)92231-7 · Cited by 957 · see citing works
Amnesic Syndrome: Consolidation or Retrieval?
Warrington, E. K., & Weiskrantz, L. (1970) · Nature · doi:10.1038/228628a0 · Cited by 863 · see citing works
Recognition and retrieval processes in free recall.
Anderson, J. R., & Bower, G. H. (1972) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0033773 · Cited by 820 · see citing works
Human memory and amnesia
Cermak, L. S. (1982) · Cited by 815 · see citing works
Précis of Elements of episodic memory
Tulving, E. (1984) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x0004440x · Cited by 809 · see citing works
Self-citation
Remembering the data: analyzing interactive processes in reading
Jacoby, L. L. (1983) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(83)90301-8 · Cited by 747 · see citing works
Perceptual enhancement: Persistent effects of an experience.
Jacoby, L. L. (1983) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.9.1.21 · Cited by 736 · see citing works
On the transfer of information from temporary to permanent memory
Craik, F. I. M. (1983) · Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.1983.0059 · Cited by 633 · see citing works
The effect of prior learning on subsequent retention in amnesic patients
Warrington, E. K., & Weiskrantz, L. (1974) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(74)90072-4 · Cited by 613 · see citing works
Accretion, Tuning and Restructuring: Three Modes of Learning
Rumelhart, D. E., & Norman, D. A. (1976) · doi:10.21236/ada030406 · Cited by 609 · see citing works
Models of human memory
Norman, D. A., & Bernbach, H. A. (1970) · Cited by 604 · see citing works
Remembering without awareness.
Jacoby, L. L., & Witherspoon, D. P. (1982) · Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue Canadienne de Psychologie · doi:10.1037/h0080638 · Cited by 588 · see citing works
ARCHIVES OF NEUROLOGY AND PSYCHIATRY
Mott, F. W. (1923) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-192304000-00071 · Cited by 587 · see citing works
Retrieval without recollection: An experimental analysis of source amnesia
Schacter, D. L., Harbluk, J. L., & McLachlan, D. R. C. (1984) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(84)90373-6 · Cited by 528 · see citing works
Recall and Recognition
Battig, W. F., & Brown, J. L. (1977) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1421650 · Cited by 505 · see citing works
Models for Free Recall and Recognition
Kintsch, W. (1970) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-521350-9.50016-4 · Cited by 483 · see citing works
Short-term memory
Deutsch, D., Deutsch, J. A., & Barondes, S. H. (1975) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 473 · see citing works
Neural mechanisms of learning and memory
(1992) · Chemico-Biological Interactions · doi:10.1016/0009-2797(92)90095-3 · Cited by 472 · see citing works
Amnesia: A disconnection syndrome?
Warrington, E. K., & Weiskrantz, L. (1982) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(82)90099-9 · Cited by 416 · see citing works
On interpretation of interactions
Loftus, G. R. (1978) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03197461 · Cited by 409 · see citing works
The anterograde and retrograde retrieval ability of a patient with amnesia due to encephalitis
Cermak, L. S., & O’Connor, M. G. (1983) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(83)90039-8 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
Priming in episodic and semantic memory
McKoon, G., & Ratcliff, R. (1979) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(79)90255-x · Cited by 260 · see citing works
Human memory and amnesia
Squire, L. (1984) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · Cited by 234 · see citing works
Infants, Amnesics, and Dissociable Memory Systems
Schacter, D. L., & Moscovitch, M. (1984) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-9364-5_8 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Semantic factors in cognition
Klatzky, R. L., & Cotton, J. W. (1978) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Perspectives on Learning and Memory
Nilsson, L.-G., & Archer, T. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315802190 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Perspectives on memory research : essays in honor of Uppsala University's 500th anniversary
Nilsson, L.-G. (1979) · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Dissociation of memory and awareness in young and older adults
Light, L. L., Singh, A., & Capps, J. L. (1986) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/01688638608401297 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
Experiments with Goggles
Kohler, I. (1962) · Scientific American · doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0562-62 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Ecphoric processes in recall and recognition.
Tulving, E. (1976) · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Self-citation
Processes Of Animal Memory
Medin, D. L., Davis, R. T., & Roberts, W. A. (1976) · Andalas University Repository (Andalas University) · Cited by 169 · see citing works
A Multiple-Entry, Modular Memory System
Johnson, M. K. (1983) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60097-3 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Varieties of Residual Experience
Weiskrantz, L. (1980) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/14640748008401832 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Posthypnotic amnesia for recently learned material: Interactions with “episodic” and “semantic” memory
Kihlstrom, J. F. (1980) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(80)90010-9 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Comparative analysis of episodic memory
Olton, D. S. (1984) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x0004454x · Cited by 131 · see citing works
The Expression of Knowledge
Isaacson, R. L., & Spear, N. E. (1982) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-7890-7 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
An appreciation of generate-recognize theory of recall
Watkins, M. J., & Gardiner, J. M. (1979) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(79)90397-9 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Evidence against a semantic-episodic distinction.
Anderson, J. R., & Ross, B. H. (1980) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Learning & Memory · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.6.5.441 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Information processing in space-time by the hippocampus
Moore, J. W. (1979) · Physiological Psychology · doi:10.3758/bf03326630 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Do Hippocampal Lesions Produce Amnesia in Animals?
Iversen, S. D. (1976) · International review of neurobiology · doi:10.1016/s0074-7742(08)60700-x · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Neuropsychological evidence and the semantic/episodic distinction
Baddeley, A. (1984) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00044411 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Determinants of recognition and recall: Accessibility and generation.
Rabinowitz, J. C., Mandler, G., & Patterson, K. E. (1977) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.106.3.302 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Residual Learning Capability in Organic Amnesia
Parkin, A. J. (1982) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/s0010-9452(82)80040-3 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Recognition memory: How complex a retrieval system?
McCormack, P. D. (1972) · Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue Canadienne de Psychologie · doi:10.1037/h0082413 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Regional cerebral blood flow response to recognition memory versus semantic classification tasks*1
WOOD, F. (1980) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/0093-934x(80)90075-9 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
More evidence for the existence of separate semantic and episodic stores in long-term memory.
Herrmann, D. J., & Harwood, J. R. (1980) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Learning & Memory · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.6.5.467 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
3. Recognition and "Me-Ness"
Claparède, E. (1951) · Columbia University Press eBooks · doi:10.7312/rapa92214-006 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Sentence verification, sentence recognition, and the semantic-episodic distinction.
Shoben, E. J., Wescourt, K. T., & Smith, E. E. (1978) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Learning & Memory · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.4.4.304 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Does current evidence from dissociation experiments favor the episodic/semantic distinction?
Roediger, H. L., III (1984) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00044563 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Closure with negative after-images under flickering light.
Mooney, C. M. (1956) · Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue Canadienne de Psychologie · doi:10.1037/h0083671 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Multiple Learning and Memory Systems
Tulving, E. (1984) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)62626-6 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-citation
Are semantic memory and episodic memory distinct systems?
McCloskey, M. E., & Santee, J. L. (1981) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Learning & Memory · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.7.1.66 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Direct and associative priming in anagram solving.
Dominowski, R. L., & Ekstrand, B. R. (1967) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0024509 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Episodic versus semantic memory: A distinction whose time has come – and gone?
Hintzman, D. L. (1984) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00044435 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
A fact is a fact is a fact
Kihlstrom, J. F. (1984) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00044460 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Three-dimensional memory traces: A model and its application to forgetting
Ogilvie, J. C., Tulving, E., Paskowitz, S., & Jones, G. V. (1980) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(80)90285-6 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Self-citation
The informational character of representations
Dretske, F. (1982) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00012541 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Stimulus variables and subject variables: A caution.
Mandler, G. (1959) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0043276 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Just how does ecphory work?
Tiberghien, G. (1984) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00044599 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
The semantic-episodic distinction and the history of long-term memory typologies
Herrmann, D. J. (1982) · Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society · doi:10.3758/bf03334817 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Neuropsychological evidence for multiple memory systems
Warrington, E. K. (2009) · Acta Neurologica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0404.1981.tb02358.x · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Brain mechanisms of mammalian memory.
Oakley, D. (1981) · British Medical Bulletin · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a071697 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Effects of recognition on subsequent recall: Comments on "Determinants of recognition and recall: Accessibility and generation" by Rabinowitz, Mandler, and Patterson.
Broadbent, D. E., & Broadbent, M. (1977) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.106.3.330 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Anagram solution as a function of instructions, priming, and imagery.
Jablonski, E. M., & Mueller, J. H. (1972) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0032766 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Behaviours that indicate memory: Levels of expression.
Spear, N. E. (1984) · Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue Canadienne de Psychologie · doi:10.1037/h0080824 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
The episodic/semantic continuum in an evolved machine
Lachman, R., & Naus, M. J. (1984) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00044484 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
La mémoire épisodique est-elle emboîtée dans la mémoire sémantique?
Lieury, A. (1979) · L’Année psychologique · doi:10.3406/psy.1979.1355 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Armchair theorists have more fun
Klatzky, R. L. (1984) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00044472 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Memory: Two systems or one system with many subsystems?
Wolters, G. (1984) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00044605 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
The ontogeny of episodic and semantic memory
Seamon, J. G. (1984) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00044575 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The relation of visual acuity to convergence and accommodation.
Tulving, E. (1958) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0043086 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citation
Inference and temporal coding in episodic memory
McCauley, R. N. (1984) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00044502 · Cited by 4 · see citing works

Flagged first, then by citations

Sorted by citations

Memory and the hippocampus: A synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans.
Squire, L. R. (1992) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.99.2.195 · Cited by 5,376 · see citing works
Episodic memory: from mind to brain
Tulving, E. (2002) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135114 · Cited by 4,950 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Role of Consciousness in Second Language Learning1
SCHMIDT, R. W. (1990) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/11.2.129 · Cited by 4,910 · see citing works
“Many writers on the subject have recognized that there are degrees or levels of awareness (Baruss 1987; Battista 1978; Bowers 1984; James 1890; Lunzer 1979; Natsoulis 1987; Oakley 1985b; O'Keefe 1985; Tulving 1985).”
Background
Dimensions of Consumer Expertise
Alba, J. W., & Hutchinson, J. W. (1987) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/209080 · Cited by 4,375 · see citing works
The Medial Temporal Lobe Memory System
Squire, L. R., & Zola-Morgan, S. (1991) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1896849 · Cited by 3,282 · see citing works
The Medial Temporal Lobe and Recognition Memory
Eichenbaum, H., Yonelinas, A. P., & Ranganath, C. (2007) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.30.051606.094328 · Cited by 2,580 · see citing works
Priming and Human Memory Systems
Tulving, E., & Schacter, D. L. (1990) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.2296719 · Cited by 2,595 · see citing works
Self-citation
Memory systems of the brain: A brief history and current perspective
Squire, L. R. (2004) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2004.06.005 · Cited by 2,269 · see citing works
Measurement of Situation Awareness in Dynamic Systems
Endsley, M. R. (1995) · Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1518/001872095779049499 · Cited by 2,039 · see citing works
Neuroscience-Inspired Artificial Intelligence
Hassabis, D., Kumaran, D., Summerfield, C., & Botvinick, M. (2017) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2017.06.011 · Cited by 1,557 · see citing works
Declarative and Nondeclarative Memory: Multiple Brain Systems Supporting Learning and Memory
Squire, L. R. (1992) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.1992.4.3.232 · Cited by 1,282 · see citing works
Deconstructing episodic memory with construction
Hassabis, D., & Maguire, E. A. (2007) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.05.001 · Cited by 1,229 · see citing works
The brain's default network and its adaptive role in internal mentation
Andrews-Hanna, J. R. (2012) · The Neuroscientist · doi:10.1177/1073858411403316 · Cited by 1,114 · see citing works
Sleep-Dependent Learning and Memory Consolidation
Walker, M. P., & Stickgold, R. (2004) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2004.08.031 · Cited by 1,113 · see citing works
Sleep, memory, and plasticity
Walker, M. P., & Stickgold, R. (2006) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070307 · Cited by 1,075 · see citing works
Measures of Memory
Richardson-Klavehn, A., & Bjork, R. A. (1988) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.39.020188.002355 · Cited by 983 · see citing works
A Functional-Design Approach to Motivation and Self-Regulation
Kuhl, J. (2000) · Handbook of Self-Regulation · doi:10.1016/b978-012109890-2/50034-2 · Cited by 736 · see citing works
A Comprehensive Survey of Few-shot Learning: Evolution, Applications, Challenges, and Opportunities
Song, Y., Wang, T., Cai, P., Mondal, S. K., & Sahoo, J. P. (2023) · ACM Computing Surveys · doi:10.1145/3582688 · Cited by 721 · see citing works
Prediction of cognitive decline in normal elderly subjects with 2-[ <sup>18</sup> F]fluoro-2-deoxy- <scp>d</scp> -glucose/positron-emission tomography (FDG/PET)
de Leon, M. J., Convit, A., Wolf, O. T., Tarshish, C. Y., DeSanti, S., Rusinek, H., Tsui, W., Kandil, E., Scherer, A. J., Roche, A., et al. (2001) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.191044198 · Cited by 629 · see citing works
Sleep states and memory processes
Smith, C. (1995) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0166-4328(95)00024-n · Cited by 473 · see citing works
Not all minds that wander are lost: the importance of a balanced perspective on the mind-wandering state
Smallwood, J., & Andrews-Hanna, J. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00441 · Cited by 433 · see citing works
Worth a glance: Using eye movements to investigate the cognitive neuroscience of memory.
Hannula, D. E. (2010) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2010.00166 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
The impaired learning of semantic knowledge following bilateral medial temporal-lobe resection
Gabrieli, J. D. E., Cohen, N. J., & Corkin, S. (1988) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/0278-2626(88)90027-9 · Cited by 311 · see citing works
Priming of semantic autobiographical knowledge: A case study of retrograde amnesia
Tulving, E., Schacter, D. L., McLachlan, D. R., & Moscovitch, M. (1988) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/0278-2626(88)90035-8 · Cited by 312 · see citing works
Self-citation
Role of emotion in cognitive-behavior therapy
Samoilov, A., & Goldfried, M. R. (2000) · Clinical Psychology Science and Practice · doi:10.1093/clipsy.7.4.373 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Episodic-like memory in rats: is it based on when or how long ago?
Roberts, W. A., Feeney, M. C., MacPherson, K., Petter, M., McMillan, N., & Musolino, E. (2008) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1152709 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
Episodic-like memory in pigeons
Zentall, T. R., Clement, T. S., Bhatt, R. S., & Allen, J. (2001) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196204 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Differential contributions of hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex to self-projection and self-referential processing
Kurczek, J., Wechsler, E., Ahuja, S., Jensen, U., Cohen, N. J., Tranel, D., & Duff, M. (2015) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.05.002 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Growing up multitasking: The costs and benefits for cognitive development
Courage, M. L., Bakhtiar, A., Fitzpatrick, C., Kenny, S., & Brandeau, K. (2015) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2014.12.002 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
A distributed representation of internal time
Howard, M. W., Shankar, K. H., Aue, W. R., & Criss, A. H. (2015) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0037840 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
See, Like, Share, Remember: Adolescents’ Responses to Unhealthy-, Healthy- and Non-Food Advertising in Social Media
Murphy, G., Corcoran, C., Tatlow-Golden, M., Boyland, E., & Rooney, B. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17072181 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Science, sentience, and animal welfare
Jones, R. C. (2013) · Biology & Philosophy · doi:10.1007/s10539-012-9351-1 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Memory for traumatic experiences in early childhood
Cordón, I. M., Pipe, M.-E., Sayfan, L., Melinder, A., & Goodman, G. S. (2004) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2003.09.003 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Remembering and imagining: the role of the self
Rathbone, C. J., Conway, M. A., & Moulin, C. J. A. (2011) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2011.02.013 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Memory for what, where, and when in the black-capped chickadee (Poecile atricapillus)
Feeney, M. C., Roberts, W. A., & Sherry, D. F. (2009) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-009-0236-x · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Differentiating the effects of centrally acting drugs on arousal and memory: an event-related potential study of scopolamine, lorazepam and diphenhydramine
Curran, H. V., Pooviboonsuk, P., Dalton, J. A., & Lader, M. H. (1998) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s002130050482 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
How do I remember? Let me count the ways
Stickgold, R. (2009) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2009.05.004 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Elements of episodic-like memory in animal models
Crystal, J. D. (2009) · Behavioural Processes · doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2008.09.009 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Mechanisms of remembering the past and imagining the future: new data from autobiographical memory tasks in a lifespan approach
Abram, M., Picard, L., Navarro, B., & Piolino, P. (2014) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2014.07.011 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Episodic-like memory: Pigeons can report location pecked when unexpectedly asked
Zentall, T. R., Singer, R. A., & Stagner, J. P. (2008) · Behavioural Processes · doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2008.05.003 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
A review of factors that moderate autobiographical memory performance in patients with major depressive disorder
King, M. J., MacDougall, A. G., Ferris, S. M., Levine, B., MacQueen, G. M., & McKinnon, M. C. (2010) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803391003781874 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Recall of Others’ Actions after Incidental Encoding Reveals Episodic-like Memory in Dogs
Fugazza, C., Pogány, Á., & Miklósi, Á. (2016) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.09.057 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Validation of a rodent model of episodic memory
Zhou, W., & Crystal, J. D. (2011) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-010-0367-0 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Pigeons learn to answer the question “where did you just peck?” and can report peck location when unexpectedly asked
Singer, R. A., & Zentall, T. R. (2007) · Learning & Behavior · doi:10.3758/bf03193054 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Destination Attributes of Memorable Chinese Rural Tourism Experiences: Impact on Positive Arousal, Memory and Behavioral Intention
Huang, R., & Bu, H.-M. (2022) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s387241 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
A critical review of elaboration theory
Wilson, B., & Cole, P. (1992) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02296843 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Do you remember? Rater memory systems and leadership measurement
Hansbrough, T. K., Lord, R. G., Schyns, B., Foti, R. J., Liden, R. C., & Acton, B. P. (2021) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2020.101455 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Mental representation and episodic-like memory of own actions in dogs
Fugazza, C., Pongrácz, P., Pogány, Á., Lenkei, R., & Miklósi, Á. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-67302-0 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Strategic use of internal and external memory in everyday life: episodic, semantic, procedural, and prospective purposes
Finley, J. R., & Naaz, F. (2023) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2022.2126858 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Untitled work
Illies (2010) · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000001 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Can older people remember medication reminders presented using synthetic speech?
Wolters, M. K., Johnson, C., Campbell, P. E., DePlacido, C. G., & McKinstry, B. (2015) · Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association · doi:10.1136/amiajnl-2014-002820 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Episodic-like memory of rats as retrospective retrieval of incidentally encoded locations and involvement of the retrosplenial cortex
Sato, N. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-81943-9 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Nonprobative photos rapidly lead people to believe claims about their own (and other people’s) pasts
Cardwell, B. A., Henkel, L. A., Garry, M., Newman, E. J., & Foster, J. L. (2016) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-016-0603-1 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
A contemplative perspective on mind wandering
Didriksen, L. S. (2022) · New Perspectives on Mind-Wandering · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-06955-0_10 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Seeing, Listening, Remembering, and Reasoning: A Multimodal Agent with Long-Term Memory
Long, L., He, Y., Ye, W., Pan, Y., Lin, Y., Li, H., Zhao, J., & Li, W. (2025) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2508.09736 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Instead of using single-turn retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) to load memory into context [20], M3-Agent employs reinforcement learning to enable multi-turn reasoning and iterative memory retrieval, resulting in higher task success rates.”

Susquehanna Chorale Spring Concert "Roots and Wings"
Hawkins, D. (2017)
Personality correlates and utilitarian judgments in the everyday context: Psychopathic traits and differential effects of empathy, social dominance orientation, and dehumanization beliefs
Takamatsu, R. (2019) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.03.029 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Amount of altruistic punishment accounts for subsequent emotional gratification in participants with primary psychopathy
Masui, K., Iriguchi, S., Nomura, M., & Ura, M. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.07.006 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
The Information Used to Judge Supportiveness Depends on Whether the Judgment Reflects the Personality of Perceivers, the Objective Characteristics of Targets, or their Unique Relationships
Lakey, B., Lutz, C. J., & Scoboria, A. (2004) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.23.6.817.54806 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
The Mental Representations Of High And Low Entitativity Groups
Johnson, A. L., & Queller, S. (2003) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.21.2.101.21316 · Cited by 13 · see citing works

Authors: Tulving, E.
Affiliations: University of Toronto (CA)
Corresponding author: Tulving, Endel
Venue: American Psychologist
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1985-04
Volume: 40
Issue: 4
Pages: 385-398
ISSN: 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
1935-990X
DOI: 10.1037/0003-066x.40.4.385
OpenAlex: W2073667556
Cited by: 1,909
References: 91
Citations by year: 2026: 28 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 43 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 48 · 2021: 57 · 2020: 68 · 2019: 63 · 2018: 51 · 2017: 39 · 2016: 50 · 2015: 47 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 60 · 2012: 80
FWCI: 28.55
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
Keywords: multiple memory systems, procedural memory, semantic memory, episodic memory, memory classification, recognition memory, neural substrates of memory, memory and consciousness, memory and emotion

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

How many memory systems are there?

Abstract

Integrity signals

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Cites

Cited by

Related

Record

About these checks