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Meta-analytic evidence for a superordinate cognitive control network subserving diverse executive functions
Open accessAbstract
Classic cognitive theory conceptualizes executive functions as involving multiple specific domains, including initiation, inhibition, working memory, flexibility, planning, and vigilance. Lesion and neuroimaging experiments over the past two decades have suggested that both common and unique processes contribute to executive functions during higher cognition. It has been suggested that a superordinate fronto–cingulo–parietal network supporting cognitive control may also underlie a range of distinct executive functions. To test this hypothesis in the largest sample to date, we used quantitative meta-analytic methods to analyze 193 functional neuroimaging studies of 2,832 healthy individuals, ages 18–60, in which performance on executive function measures was contrasted with an active control condition. A common pattern of activation was observed in the prefrontal, dorsal anterior cingulate, and parietal cortices across executive function domains, supporting the idea that executive functions are supported by a superordinate cognitive control network. However, domain-specific analyses showed some variation in the recruitment of anterior prefrontal cortex, anterior and midcingulate regions, and unique subcortical regions such as the basal ganglia and cerebellum. These results are consistent with the existence of a superordinate cognitive control network in the brain, involving dorsolateral prefrontal, anterior cingulate, and parietal cortices, that supports a broad range of executive functions.
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“For example, Niendam et al.‘s [137] meta-analytic study of 193 neuroimaging fMRI studies of EF showed broad patterns of activation across the lateral and medial PFC, including regions BA-9 and BA-46 (dlPFC) and BA-32 (rostral ACC), as well as both superior and inferior regions of the parietal lobes for tasks with predominantly working memory, flexibility, or inhibitory components.”
From The role of prefrontal cortex in cognitive control and executive function (2022) · cites this paper as [137]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“Conjunction maps of activation during different tasks (e.g., during inhibiting, updating, and shifting tasks), either with data estimated within one study [135, 138, 139] or with meta-analytic techniques [137, 140, 141], suggest that both children and adults recruit a common set of regions within the FPN and CON during diverse EF tasks.”
From The role of prefrontal cortex in cognitive control and executive function (2022) · cites this paper as [137]
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“At the neurobiological level, this unity can be seen in the overall patterns of neural activations during CC tasks [135–137]: Neuroimaging studies suggest that individuals performing these kinds of tasks generally activate some of the same brain regions across multiple tasks, although they also activate some regions that are unique to a particular task.”
From The role of prefrontal cortex in cognitive control and executive function (2022) · cites this paper as [137]
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“The ECN, which overlaps with the frontostriatal and frontoparietal networks, is a fundamental neural substrate underpinning higher-order cognitive functions.”
From Cognitive Inflexibility Shares Across Schizophrenia and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: A Task-Based Functional MRI Study (2025) · cites this paper as [39]
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“The cognitive control network (CCN),7 mainly comprising the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, postparietal cortex, and frontal eye fields, plays a pivotal role in regulating top-down cognitive processes.8”
From Can Intermittent Theta-Burst Stimulation of Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Relieve Executive Dysfunction in Patients With Late-Life Depression? (2024) · cites this paper as [7]
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“The DLPFC is a key node within the cognitive control network, 13 which is thought to subserve executive functions, such as response inhibition, set-shifting, and planning.”
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In the citing paper
“The Go system could drive craving and engage habits via the basal ganglia.105,127”
From Neurobiology of addiction: a neurocircuitry analysis (2016) · cites this paper as [127]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“It is now widely established that the frontoparietal control network (FPCN) plays an important role in executive control of attention.156–159”
From The default network and self-generated thought: component processes, dynamic control, and clinical relevance (2014) · cites this paper as [158]
In the citing paper
“Although the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is thought to play a key role in mediating executive control, neuroimaging and lesion studies demonstrated that the performance of executive tasks is associated with activation in a large set of brain regions, involving prefrontal and parietal areas, motor regions, as well as subcortical structures, such as basal ganglia and thalamus (Duncan and Owen, 2000; D”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Niendam et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“Decades of functional neuroimaging work has delineated brain networks underlying EFs that contribute to cognitive flexibility (21,22), namely the executive control/lateral frontoparietal (L-FPN) and salience/midcingulo-insular networks (M-CIN) (23–25).”
From Brain Mechanisms Supporting Flexible Cognition and Behavior in Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder (2021) · cites this paper as [22]
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Citations
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Slowing of Parameterized Resting-State Electroencephalography After Mild Traumatic Brain Injury
Nwakamma, M. C., Stillman, A., Gabard-Durnam, L. J., Cavanagh, J. F., Hillman, C. H., & Morris, T. P. (2024) · Neurotrauma Reports · doi:10.1089/neur.2024.0004 · Cited by 10
“16,17 Neuropsychological assessments are typically used with the purpose of detecting changes in brain and cognitive outcomes post-injury to inform clinical treatment and prognosis, 18 but are not sensitive enough to detect subclinical brain damage, which may better inform prognostic models of…”
Chuikova, Z. V., Filatov, A. A., Faber, A. Y., & Arsalidou, M. (2024) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-024-00921-7 · Cited by 13
“The fronto-parietal areas are implicated in all sorts of cognitive processes such as working memory (Niendam et al., 2012; Rodríguez-Nieto et al., 2022; Yaple et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2021), inhibition (Buchsbaum et al., 2005; Niendam et al., 2012; Rodríguez-Nieto et al., 2022; Zhang et al.,…”
InfluentialKinsey, S., Kazimierczak, K., Andrés-Camazón, P., Chen, J., Adalı, T., Kochunov, P., Adhikari, B. M., Ford, J. M., van Erp, T. G. M., Dhamala, M., et al. (2024) · Nature Mental Health · doi:10.1038/s44220-024-00341-y · Cited by 12
“Networks implicated in higher cognitive functions such as attention 49 , social cognition and self-referential processes 50 , and executive control 51 exhibit core–periphery gradients.”
Kean, H., Fung, A., Pramod, R. T., Chomik-Morales, J., Kanwisher, N., & Fedorenko, E. G. (2025) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2025.109125 · Cited by 16
Ewing, G. W. (2015) · Journal of Computer Science & Systems Biology · doi:10.4172/jcsb.1000172 · Cited by 11
“that neural networks work in a synchronised manner [193]; that this involves cognitive input [96-98], the autonomic nervous system [14,15,205], a mathematical relationship involving organ systems, organs, cells and molecular biology [14,15,45,118], the physiological or functional systems [1,8,12,14,15,19,69,87,187]; a…”
BackgroundEffect of GHB-use and GHB-induced comas on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex functioning in humans
Pereira, F. R., McMaster, M. T. B., Polderman, N., de Vries, Y. D. A. T., van den Brink, W., & van Wingen, G. A. (2018) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2018.09.022 · Cited by 12
“When a response conflict is detected by these regions, the DLPFC is engaged to execute a relevant response correction and provide the appropriate error conflict resolution (Carter and van Veen, 2007; Niendam et al., 2012).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMaternal History of Childhood Maltreatment and Control Strategies: A Search for Mechanisms
Liu, S., Dong, S., & Wang, Z. (2021) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/jomf.12751 · Cited by 11
Köpke, B., Howells, R. K. R., Cortelazzo, F., Péran, P., Boissezon, X. D., & Lubrano, V. (2021) · Journal of Neurolinguistics · doi:10.1016/j.jneuroling.2021.100988 · Cited by 11
An Effect of Education on Memory-Encoding Activation in Subjective Cognitive Decline
Mizuno, A. N., Karim, H. T., Ly, M. J., Cohen, A. D., Lopresti, B. J., Mathis, C. A., Klunk, W. E., Aizenstein, H. J., & Snitz, B. E. (2021) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-201087 · Cited by 11
“The ECN is involved in attention, inhibition, and shifting [47].”
Jaywant, A., Dunlop, K., Victoria, L. W., Oberlin, L. E., Lynch, C. J., Respino, M., Kuceyeski, A. F., Scult, M. A., Hoptman, M. J., Liston, C. M., et al. (2021) · American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2021.07.015 · Cited by 11
Li, J. Y., Wu, H., Yuan, S., Wang, C., Wang, Q., Zhong, Y., Zhang, N., Heffner, K. L., & Fox, P. T. (2022) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-022-03796-4 · Cited by 12
“Overlay analysis To identify whether the regions activated by different tasks overlap, we performed a coordinate-based metaanalyses of executive functioning using the anatomic likelihood estimation (ALE) method per each task and completed within-group meta-analyses for each BrainMap domain to find domain-specific patt…”
MethodXi, C., Liu, Z., Zeng, C., Tan, W., Sun, F., Yang, J., & Palaniyappan, L. K. (2022) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/07067437221078646 · Cited by 11
“These regions constitute distinct large-scale brain networks with a pattern of WM-related activation seen in the central executive network (CEN), the salience network (SN), and deactivation in the default mode network (DMN).(12) A failure to deactivate the DMN during WM task has been reported both in bipolar disorder…”
BackgroundGibson, B. C., Claus, E. D., Sanguinetti, J., Witkiewitz, K. A., & Clark, V. P. (2022) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104821 · Cited by 12
Amiri, S., Mirfazeli, F. S., Grafman, J. H., Mohammadsadeghi, H., Eftekhar, M., Karimzad, N., Mohebbi, M., & Nohesara, S. (2023) · Annals of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12991-023-00449-y · Cited by 11
Adjunctive cognitive training with exposure enhances fear and neural outcomes in social anxiety
Caudle, M. M., Dugas, N., Stout, D. M., Ball, T. M., & Bomyea, J. A. (2023) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115416 · Cited by 11
Effects of injustice sensitivity and sex on the P3 amplitude during deception
Leue, A., & Beauducel, A. (2015) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2015.04.004 · Cited by 11
Potthoff, D., & Seitz, R. J. (2015) · Journal of Physiology-Paris · doi:10.1016/j.jphysparis.2015.12.003 · Cited by 11
Kavanaugh, B. C., Gaudet, C. E., Dupont-Frechette, J. A., Tellock, P. P., Maher, I. D., Haisley, L. D., & Holler, K. A. (2016) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.10.074 · Cited by 11
“…likely reflects the cognitive control network that subserves EF, which includes dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, precentral gyrus, and dorsal parietal cortex (Cole and Schneider, 2007; Niendam et al., 2012; Williams, 2016; Etkin et al., 2013; Senkowski and Gallinat, 2015).”
BackgroundTokuda, T., Ikeda, T., Monden, Y., Mizushima, S. G., Inoue, T., Nagashima, M., Shimamura, K., Akari, A., Kobayashi, M. S., Kuroiwa, C., et al. (2018) · Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.4172/neuropsychiatry.1000418 · Cited by 11
“Furthermore, these condition- and subject-dependent activation patterns are consistent with the results of previous fMRI studies on ADHD children in general, as well as those on ADHD children without ASD [58,72-74] (also see meta analyses by [75-77]).”
ResultPairing Neutral Cues with Alcohol Intoxication: New Findings in Executive and Attention Networks
Oberlin, B. G., Dzemidzic, M., Eiler, W. J. A. I., Carron, C. R., Soeurt, C. M., Plawecki, M., Grahame, N., O'Connor, S., & Kareken, D. (2018) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-018-4968-7 · Cited by 11
“…frontoparietal regions also strongly interconnect with other brain networks (Spreng et al. 2013), and govern a range of executive functions, including flexibility, inhibition, working memory, initiation, planning, and vigilance (Niendam et al. 2012; Seeley et al. 2007; Sridharan et al. 2008).”
InfluentialZink, N., Stock, A., Vahid, A., & Beste, C. (2018) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2018.00411 · Cited by 13
Macatee, R. J., Albanese, B. J., Crane, N. A., Okey, S. A., Cougle, J. R., & Schmidt, N. B. (2018) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/adb0000418 · Cited by 11
Simonet, M., von Roten, F. C., Spierer, L., & Barral, J. (2019) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.04.010 · Cited by 11
“…result in larger generalization because such interventions would result in deeper modifications of domain-general executive areas and, in turn, modifications of performance on untrained tasks relying on the same brain network (Buschkuehl et al., 2014; Dahlin et al., 2008; Niendam et al., 2012).”
BackgroundMeyer, K. N., Davidow, J. Y., Dijk, K. R. A. V., Santillana, R. M., Snyder, J., Bustamante, C. M. V., Hollinshead, M., Rosen, B. R., Somerville, L. H., & Sheridan, M. A. (2020) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117629 · Cited by 12
Gerrits, N. J. H. M., van den Heuvel, O. A., & van der Werf, Y. D. (2015) · BMC Neuroscience · doi:10.1186/s12868-015-0181-3 · Cited by 11
“Background The dorsal fronto-striatal circuit plays an important role in executive functions [1].”
Wade, M., Hoffmann, T. J., & Jenkins, J. M. (2014) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2014.06.002 · Cited by 11
Oh-Descher, H., Beck, J. M., Ferrari, S., Sommer, M. A., & Egner, T. (2017) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.08.069 · Cited by 14
“4A, Table 5), a set of regions that are commonly activated under high attentional demand and are often referred to as the fronto-parietal cognitive control network (Dosenbach et al., 2006; Duncan and Owen, 2000; Niendam et al., 2012; Wager et al., 2004).”
Age-Related Atrophy and Compensatory Neural Networks in Reading Comprehension
Fitzhugh, M. C., Braden, B. B., Sabbagh, M. N., Rogalsky, C., & Baxter, L. C. (2019) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617719000274 · Cited by 11
Dugre, J. R., & Potvin, S. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.03.29.534795 · Cited by 12
“activation of common brain regions including frontal (Duncan & Owen, 2000; Niendam et al., 2012), and parietal regions (Niendam et al.”
BackgroundCahalan, S., Mitroff, S. R., Subiaul, F., & Rosenblau, G. (2025) · Personality Neuroscience · doi:10.1017/pen.2025.10002 · Cited by 11
“…level, cognitive flexibility tasks recruit a distributed network of frontoparietal regions including the inferior frontal junction, ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, posterior parietal cortices, insula, and anterior cingulate cortices (Dajani & Uddin, 2015; Kim et al., 2012; Niendam et al., 2012).”
Pozo-Rodríguez, M., Cruz, S., Zubizarreta, S. C.-P., Carracedo, Á., Tubío-Fungueiriño, M., & Fernández‐Prieto, M. (2026) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2026.106570 · Cited by 12
Baytunca, M. B., Frederick, B. B., Ünsel‐Bolat, G., Kardaş, B., İzmir, S. B. İ., İpçi, M., Çallı, C., Özyurt, O., Öngür, D., Süren, S., et al. (2021) · Nordic Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/08039488.2020.1864775 · Cited by 10
Cardin, V., Kremneva, E. I., Komarova, A. V., Vinogradova, V., Davidenko, T., Zmeykina, E., Kopnin, P. N., Ирисханова, К. М., & Woll, B. (2023) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2023.108583 · Cited by 10
“For example, a network of frontal and parietal regions, known as con-trol, central-executive or fronto-parietal network, is usually activated during the performance of cognitively demanding tasks (Cohen and D ’ Esposito, 2016; Niendam et al., 2012).”
Lingelbach, K., Gado, S., Wirzberger, M., & Vukelić, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroergonomics · doi:10.3389/fnrgo.2023.1273810 · Cited by 11
Souter, N. E., de Freitas, A., Zhang, M., Shao, X., Alam, T. R. G., Engen, H. G., Smallwood, J., Krieger‐Redwood, K., & Jefferies, E. (2024) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.26703 · Cited by 10
“FT control regions also form alliances that reflect task demands (Cole et al., 2013; Gonzalez Alam et al., 2021; Niendam et al., 2012; Spreng et al., 2013); they are recruited with attention networks to form the multiple demand network (MDN; Duncan, 2001, 2010; Fedorenko et al., 2013; Hugdahl et…”
BackgroundHempel, M., Barnhofer, T., Domke, A., Hartling, C., Stippl, A., Carstens, L., Gärtner, M., & Grimm, S. (2024) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-024-02647-w · Cited by 11
“For example, future research may want to investigate the coordinative role of the anterior insula in DMN and CEN (de)activation [94] and between-network dynamics by exploring connectivity-based resting-state indices and their relation to task-evoked activation.”
Executive functioning profiles and mathematical and reading achievement in Grades 2, 6, and 10
Carriedo, N., Rodríguez‐Villagra, O. A., Pérez, L., & Iglesias-Sarmiento, V. (2024) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2024.101353 · Cited by 18
Harsh parenting, amygdala functional connectivity changes across childhood, and behavioral problems
Koyama, Y., Tiemeier, H. W., Huang, P., Chan, S. Y., Sudo, M., Kyeong, Y., Meaney, M. J., Setoh, P., & Tan, A. P. (2024) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329172400196x · Cited by 11
“…the reward processing network (nucleus accumbens (NAcc), orbital frontal cortex (OFC)) (Jia et al., 2016), and the cognitive control network (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), posterior parietal cortex (PPC)) (Niendam et al., 2012) were selected as regions of interest in our current study.”
Ghaderi, A., Taghizadeh, S., & Nazari, M. A. (2025) · Biomedical Signal Processing and Control · doi:10.1016/j.bspc.2025.107755 · Cited by 12
Neural Underpinnings of Website Legitimacy and Familiarity Detection
Neupane, A., Saxena, N., & Hirshfield, L. (2017) · International World Wide Web Conference (WWW) · doi:10.1145/3038912.3052702 · Cited by 12
Fitzsimmons, S., Douw, L., van den Heuvel, O. A., van der Werf, Y. D., & Vriend, C. (2020) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.25005 · Cited by 13
Metadata
- Authors
- Niendam, T. A., Laird, A. R., Ray, K. L., Dean, Y. M., Glahn, D. C., & Carter, C. S.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Davis (US)
- The University of Texas at San Antonio Health Science Center (US)
- Yale University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Niendam, Tara A.
- Venue
- Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience
- Published
- 2012-01-27
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 241-268
- ISSN
- 1530-7026 (ISSN-L)
- 1531-135X
- PMC
- PMC3660731
- OpenAlex
- W2019930104
- Semantic Scholar
- 98fddd2e31078947295c667fc52d483f3e530f48
- Cited by
- 1,700
- References
- 266
- Citations by year
- 2026: 119 · 2025: 153 · 2024: 156 · 2023: 143 · 2022: 156 · 2021: 170 · 2020: 117 · 2019: 146 · 2018: 123 · 2017: 125 · 2016: 84 · 2015: 75 · 2014: 77 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 15
- FWCI
- 33.31
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (P60AA007611)
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH074457, R01MH078143, R24MH081807, R01MH059883, K23MH087708, R01MH083824)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- executive function, cognitive control, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, parietal cortex, inhibition, working memory, cognitive flexibility, basal ganglia, cerebellum, functional neuroimaging
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Brain, Brain Mapping, Cognition, Female, Humans, Functional Laterality, Male, Middle Aged, Neural Pathways, Neuropsychological Tests, Radionuclide Imaging, Visual Perception, Young Adult, Executive Function, Neuroimaging
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