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Meta-analytic evidence for a superordinate cognitive control network subserving diverse executive functions
Open accessAbstract
Classic cognitive theory conceptualizes executive functions as involving multiple specific domains, including initiation, inhibition, working memory, flexibility, planning, and vigilance. Lesion and neuroimaging experiments over the past two decades have suggested that both common and unique processes contribute to executive functions during higher cognition. It has been suggested that a superordinate fronto–cingulo–parietal network supporting cognitive control may also underlie a range of distinct executive functions. To test this hypothesis in the largest sample to date, we used quantitative meta-analytic methods to analyze 193 functional neuroimaging studies of 2,832 healthy individuals, ages 18–60, in which performance on executive function measures was contrasted with an active control condition. A common pattern of activation was observed in the prefrontal, dorsal anterior cingulate, and parietal cortices across executive function domains, supporting the idea that executive functions are supported by a superordinate cognitive control network. However, domain-specific analyses showed some variation in the recruitment of anterior prefrontal cortex, anterior and midcingulate regions, and unique subcortical regions such as the basal ganglia and cerebellum. These results are consistent with the existence of a superordinate cognitive control network in the brain, involving dorsolateral prefrontal, anterior cingulate, and parietal cortices, that supports a broad range of executive functions.
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“For example, Niendam et al.‘s [137] meta-analytic study of 193 neuroimaging fMRI studies of EF showed broad patterns of activation across the lateral and medial PFC, including regions BA-9 and BA-46 (dlPFC) and BA-32 (rostral ACC), as well as both superior and inferior regions of the parietal lobes for tasks with predominantly working memory, flexibility, or inhibitory components.”
From The role of prefrontal cortex in cognitive control and executive function (2022) · cites this paper as [137]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“Conjunction maps of activation during different tasks (e.g., during inhibiting, updating, and shifting tasks), either with data estimated within one study [135, 138, 139] or with meta-analytic techniques [137, 140, 141], suggest that both children and adults recruit a common set of regions within the FPN and CON during diverse EF tasks.”
From The role of prefrontal cortex in cognitive control and executive function (2022) · cites this paper as [137]
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“At the neurobiological level, this unity can be seen in the overall patterns of neural activations during CC tasks [135–137]: Neuroimaging studies suggest that individuals performing these kinds of tasks generally activate some of the same brain regions across multiple tasks, although they also activate some regions that are unique to a particular task.”
From The role of prefrontal cortex in cognitive control and executive function (2022) · cites this paper as [137]
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“The ECN, which overlaps with the frontostriatal and frontoparietal networks, is a fundamental neural substrate underpinning higher-order cognitive functions.”
From Cognitive Inflexibility Shares Across Schizophrenia and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: A Task-Based Functional MRI Study (2025) · cites this paper as [39]
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“The cognitive control network (CCN),7 mainly comprising the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, postparietal cortex, and frontal eye fields, plays a pivotal role in regulating top-down cognitive processes.8”
From Can Intermittent Theta-Burst Stimulation of Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Relieve Executive Dysfunction in Patients With Late-Life Depression? (2024) · cites this paper as [7]
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“The DLPFC is a key node within the cognitive control network, 13 which is thought to subserve executive functions, such as response inhibition, set-shifting, and planning.”
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“The Go system could drive craving and engage habits via the basal ganglia.105,127”
From Neurobiology of addiction: a neurocircuitry analysis (2016) · cites this paper as [127]
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“It is now widely established that the frontoparietal control network (FPCN) plays an important role in executive control of attention.156–159”
From The default network and self-generated thought: component processes, dynamic control, and clinical relevance (2014) · cites this paper as [158]
In the citing paper
“Although the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is thought to play a key role in mediating executive control, neuroimaging and lesion studies demonstrated that the performance of executive tasks is associated with activation in a large set of brain regions, involving prefrontal and parietal areas, motor regions, as well as subcortical structures, such as basal ganglia and thalamus (Duncan and Owen, 2000; D”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Niendam et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“Decades of functional neuroimaging work has delineated brain networks underlying EFs that contribute to cognitive flexibility (21,22), namely the executive control/lateral frontoparietal (L-FPN) and salience/midcingulo-insular networks (M-CIN) (23–25).”
From Brain Mechanisms Supporting Flexible Cognition and Behavior in Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder (2021) · cites this paper as [22]
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“Consistent with this view, meta-analytic evidence from 193 fMRI studies identified a cognitive control network involving the dorsolateral prefrontal and parietal cortices across a broad range of executive function domains (Niendam et al. 2012).”
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“For example, a patient with prominent working memory deficits and executive dysfunction (ie, CCN abnormalities) may be more likely to respond to HF-rTMS to the left DLPFC.”
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Executive Function in High-Functioning Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Meta-analysis of fMRI Studies
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An fMRI investigation of the relationship between future imagination and cognitive flexibility
Roberts, R. P., Wiebels, K., Sumner, R. L., van Mulukom, V., Grady, C. L., Schacter, D. L., & Addis, D. R. (2017) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.11.019 · Cited by 58
“activity, especially lateral frontopolar cortex, including the rostrolateral prefrontal cortex (Benedek, Jauk, Sommer, Arendasy, & Neubauer, 2014; Gilhooly, Fioratou, Anthony, & Wynn, 2007; Niendam et al., 2012).”
Novel Advances to Post-Stroke Aphasia Pharmacology and Rehabilitation
Cichoń, N., Włodarczyk, L., Saluk, J., Bijak, M., Redlicka, J., Gorniak, L., & Miller, E. D. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm10173778 · Cited by 73
“Executive abilities require activity and coordination between the distributed regions of the brain and are associated primarily with neuronal activity within the frontal lobes, especially in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, but it has been suggested that the regulation of these functions depend on the interactions…”
BackgroundWoolgar, A., Williams, M., & Rich, A. N. (2015) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.12.083 · Cited by 65
“…active during a wide range of cognitive tasks including perceptual discrimination, response conflict, workingmemory, episodicmemory, and semantic memory (Duncan and Owen, 2000; Nyberg et al., 2003; Dosenbach et al., 2006; Duncan, 2006; Stiers et al., 2010; Niendam et al., 2012; Yeo et al., 2014).”
Neural networks of aggression: ALE meta-analyses on trait and elicited aggression
Wong, T. Y., Sid, A., Wensing, T., Eickhoff, S. B., Habel, U., Gur, R. C., & Nickl‐Jockschat, T. (2018) · Brain Structure and Function · doi:10.1007/s00429-018-1765-3 · Cited by 65
“Diverse executive function domains may be implicated in a common superordinate fronto–cingulo–parietal network (Niendam et al. 2012).”
Neural systems of cognitive demand avoidance
Sayalı, C., & Badre, D. (2018) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.06.016 · Cited by 60
“Given the general association of cognitive control with a dorsal fronto-parietal network (FPN) in the brain (Fedorenko et al., 2013; Niendam et al., 2012; Badre and D’Esposito, 2009; Vincent et al., 2008; Cole and Schneider, 2007; Dosenbach et al., 2007), a reasonable prediction is that engagement of FPN by a task wil…”
Alam, T. R. G., Mckeown, B., Gao, Z., Bernhardt, B. C., de Wael, R. V., Margulies, D. S., Smallwood, J., & Jefferies, E. (2021) · Brain Structure and Function · doi:10.1007/s00429-021-02374-w · Cited by 61
Huijbers, W., Schultz, A. P., Vannini, P., McLaren, D. G., Wigman, S. E., Ward, A. M., Hedden, T., & Sperling, R. A. (2013) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00366 · Cited by 62
“These findings are coherent with neuroimaging studies that link these regions to cognitive control (Niendam et al., 2012).”
Zmigrod, S., Zmigrod, L., & Hommel, B. (2016) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.02.046 · Cited by 57
Xu, M., Xu, G., & Yang, Y. (2016) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00220 · Cited by 71
A network correspondence toolbox for quantitative evaluation of novel neuroimaging results
Kong, R., Spreng, R. N., Xue, A., Betzel, R. F., Cohen, J. R., Damoiseaux, J. S., Brigard, F. D., Eickhoff, S. B., Fornito, A., Gratton, C., et al. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-58176-9 · Cited by 78
“This network is well known and identi fi ed for its role in the executive control of information processing in the human brain 27 .”
Self-citationVollmer, B., Lundequist, A., Mårtensson, G., Nagy, Z., Lagercrantz, H., Smedler, A., & Forssberg, H. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0178893 · Cited by 58
Dynamic reorganization of the frontal parietal network during cognitive control and episodic memory
Ray, K. L., Ragland, J. D., MacDonald, A. W., Gold, J. M., Silverstein, S. M., Barch, D. M., & Carter, C. S. (2019) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-019-00753-9 · Cited by 60
“The prefrontal cortex (PFC) plays a central role in cognitive control (Badre, 2008; MacDonald, 2000; Niendam et al., 2012).”
Self-citationAlterations of agency in hypnosis: A new predictive coding model.
Martin, J.-R., & Pacherie, E. (2019) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/rev0000134 · Cited by 57
“, 2008), the anticipation of events and response preparation (Landry et al., 2017; Alahyane et al., 2014; Niendam et al., 2012).”
Ellard, K. K., Gosai, A. K., Felicione, J. M., Peters, A. T., Shea, C. V., Sylvia, L. G., Nierenberg, A. A., Widge, A. S., Dougherty, D. D., & Deckersbach, T. (2018) · Bipolar Disorders · doi:10.1111/bdi.12709 · Cited by 59
Theta Oscillations Through Hippocampal/Prefrontal Pathway: Importance in Cognitive Performances
Zangbar, H. S., Ghadiri, T., Vafaee, M. S., Kalan, A. E., Fallahi, S., Ghorbani, M., & Shahabi, P. (2020) · Brain Connectivity · doi:10.1089/brain.2019.0733 · Cited by 62
“These areas form complex cognitive networks that manage and control various domains of the cognitive function, including working memory, attention, planning, inhibition, and other executive functions (Niendam et al., 2012).”
The link between resting heart rate variability and affective flexibility
Grol, M., & Raedt, R. D. (2020) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-020-00800-w · Cited by 62
Dissociable mechanisms underlying individual differences in visual working memory capacity
Gulbinaite, R., Johnson, A., de Jong, R., Morey, C. C., & van Rijn, H. (2014) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.05.060 · Cited by 61
“…processes are related to theta-band activity in frontal networks (Hsieh and Ranganath, 2014), and thatWMand conflict tasks engage overlapping fronto-parietal networks (Nee et al., 2007; Niendam et al., 2012), we hypothesized that high- and low-WMC individuals might differ in conflict-related theta.”
BackgroundSoutschek, A., Taylor, P. C. J., Müller, H. J., & Schubert, T. (2013) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.4768-12.2013 · Cited by 57
“Our data provide further support for the idea of conflictspecific control processes (Egner et al., 2007; Egner, 2008), challenging the assumption of a domain-unspecific general control mechanism (Botvinick et al., 2001; Freitas et al., 2007; Davelaar, 2008; Niendam et al., 2012).”
ResultKrause-Utz, A., Elzinga, B. M., Oei, N. Y. L., Paret, C., Niedtfeld, I., Spinhoven, P., Bohus, M., & Schmahl, C. G. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00848 · Cited by 61
“…regulation, and cognitive control (Bush et al., 2000; Wager and Smith, 2003; Dosenbach et al., 2006; Weissman et al., 2006; Nee et al., 2007; Seeley et al., 2007; Menon and Uddin, 2010; Etkin et al., 2011; Menon, 2011; Niendam et al., 2012; Petersen and Posner, 2012; Clarke and Johnstone, 2013).”
BackgroundPlessow, F., Marengi, D. A., Perry, S. K., Felicione, J. M., Franklin, R., Holmes, T. M., Holsen, L. M., Makris, N., Deckersbach, T., & Lawson, E. A. (2017) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2017.226 · Cited by 57
Brown, C. A., Schmitt, F. A., Smith, C. D., & Gold, B. T. (2019) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.03.073 · Cited by 61
Mooneyham, B. W., Mrazek, M. D., Mrazek, A. J., & Schooler, J. W. (2016) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.13044 · Cited by 56
Delay activity during visual working memory: A meta-analysis of 30 fMRI experiments
Li, X., O'Sullivan, M. J., & Mattingley, J. B. (2022) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119204 · Cited by 56
“The central executive network mediates executive control processes and therefore may help sustain attention to the memorized representations and protect information against interference and distraction during the prolonged delay (Nee et al., 2013; Niendam et al., 2012; Postle, 2006; Vincent et al., 2008).”
BackgroundThe morphometric co‐atrophy networking of schizophrenia, autistic and obsessive spectrum disorders
Cauda, F., Nani, A., Costa, T., Palermo, S., Tatu, K., Manuello, J., Duca, S., Fox, P. T., & Keller, R. (2018) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.23952 · Cited by 51
Abraham, A., Rutter, B., Bantin, T., & Hermann, C. (2018) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.05.004 · Cited by 61
Vanes, L. D., Mouchlianitis, E. D., Patel, K., Barry, E. F., Wong, K., Thomas, M., Szentgyorgyi, T., Joyce, D. W., & Shergill, S. S. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-51023-0 · Cited by 56
Autobiographical planning and the brain: activation and its modulation by qualitative features
Spreng, R. N., Gerlach, K. D., Turner, G. R., & Schacter, D. L. (2015) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00846 · Cited by 52
“Lateral pFC, the anterior extent of the IPL, dorsal anterior cingulate, and anterior insula comprise regions of an extended frontoparietal control system broadly involved in executive control (Niendam et al., 2012; Vincent, Kahn, Snyder, Raichle, & Buckner, 2008).”
BackgroundSmucny, J., Lesh, T. A., Newton, K., Niendam, T. A., Ragland, J. D., & Carter, C. S. (2017) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2017.233 · Cited by 55
“Nonetheless, as abnormal CC processes are known to contribute to cognitive deficits across a range of domains (Lesh et al, 2011; Niendam et al, 2012), it is likely that the results observed in the B-SNIP study may be driven by the CC deficits reported here.”
Self-citationFogel, Y., Stuart, N. J., Joyce, T., & Barnett, A. L. (2021) · Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.1080/11038128.2021.2019306 · Cited by 60
“Whilst EFs have been conceptualised in different ways in the literature, the most recent evidence supports a model of unity and diversity within EFs [25,26].”
ResultBadcock, J. C., & Hugdahl, K. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00180 · Cited by 54
“The rows correspond to basic functional dimensions of human behavior (termed Constructs; see Table 1), grouped—at least at the moment—into five higher level Domains: Cognitive Systems, Systems for Social Processes, Negative and Positive Valence Systems, and Arousal/Regulatory Systems.”
InfluentialChahal, R., Kirshenbaum, J. S., Miller, J. G., Ho, T. C., & Gotlib, I. H. (2020) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2020.08.010 · Cited by 58
“The ECN includes frontoparietal brain regions (e.g., dorsolateral prefrontal and parietal cortices) that support executive functioning (33 – 35), which includes cognitive processes that allow one to successfully navigate and adapt to novel challenges in order to attain long-term goals (36).”
Zhang, Z., Peng, P., Eickhoff, S. B., Lin, X., Zhang, D., & Wang, Y. (2021) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.13111 · Cited by 52
Hierarchical control as a shared neurocognitive mechanism for language and music
Asano, R., Boeckx, C. A., & Seifert, U. (2021) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104847 · Cited by 48
The Mind After Midnight: Nocturnal Wakefulness, Behavioral Dysregulation, and Psychopathology
Tubbs, A. S., Fernandez, F., Grandner, M. A., Perlis, M. L., & Klerman, E. B. (2022) · Frontiers in Network Physiology · doi:10.3389/fnetp.2021.830338 · Cited by 62
“Ordinarily, coordinated activity between the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC), the rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rACC), and various regions of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) would exert cognitive control to suppress negative emotional distractors and focus on goal-oriented behavior (Etkin et al., 2006; Buckne…”
BackgroundLevels of Processing in Working Memory: Differential Involvement of Frontotemporal Networks
Rose, N. S., Craik, F. I. M., & Buchsbaum, B. R. (2014) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00738 · Cited by 56
Stoddard, J., Gotts, S. J., Brotman, M. A., Lever, S. N., Hsu, D., Zarate, C. A., Monique Ernst, D., Pine, D. S., & Leibenluft, E. (2016) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291716000143 · Cited by 51
“The first network we identified (red in Figs 2 and 3) includes many brain regions implicated in attention, cognitive control and response processing (Postuma & Dagher, 2006; Niendam et al. 2012; Shulman & Corbetta, 2012).”
BackgroundDelvecchio, G., Dima, D., & Frangou, S. (2015) · American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B Neuropsychiatric Genetics · doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.32294 · Cited by 51
“These regions are also core components of the superordinate cognitive control network that supports a broad range of executive function tasks [Niendam et al., 2012].”
Gröne, M., Dyck, M., Koush, Y., Bergert, S., Mathiak, K., Alawi, E. M., Elliott, M. A., & Mathiak, K. (2014) · Brain Topography · doi:10.1007/s10548-014-0384-4 · Cited by 48
tDCS-Induced Effects on Executive Functioning and Their Cognitive Mechanisms: a Review
Strobach, T., & Antonenko, D. (2016) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-016-0004-1 · Cited by 52
Kim, N. Y., Wittenberg, E., & Nam, C. S. (2017) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2017.00378 · Cited by 59
“The meta-analysis also identified activation of the cingulate (BA 32, 24) and temporal (BA 13, 37) cortex unique toWM and updating tasks (Niendam et al., 2012).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialCao, H., McEwen, S. C., Forsyth, J. K., Gee, D. G., Bearden, C. E., Addington, J., Goodyear, B. G., Cadenhead, K. S., Mirzakhanian, H., Cornblatt, B. A., et al. (2018) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhy032 · Cited by 51
“…functions such as memory (Prabhakaran et al. 2000; McNab and Klingberg 2008), emotional processing (Phillips et al. 2003) and executive functioning (Niendam et al. 2012), and are strongly associated with the memory–emotion task battery used in this study (Forsyth et al. 2014; Gee et al. 2015).”
MethodHeritability and Cognitive Relevance of Structural Brain Controllability
Lee, W. H., Rodrigue, A., Glahn, D. C., Bassett, D. S., & Frangou, S. (2019) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhz293 · Cited by 49
“Of note, the pattern of correlations for emotion recognition in the LV2 in both PLS analyses followed that for executive functions; this is consistent with recent meta-analyses that show convergence between the superordinal networks for executive function and affect processing, particularly in the anterior cingulate c…”
ResultSelf-citationIdentifying neural correlates of visual consciousness with ALE meta-analyses
Bisenius, S., Trapp, S., Neumann, J., & Schroeter, M. L. (2015) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.07.070 · Cited by 51
“It has been shown that there is a common superordinate network for the three components of executive functions with some regions being preferentially activated by just one or two of the three components (Colette et al., 2005; Niendam et al., 2012).”
Worhunsky, P. D., Potenza, M. N., & Rogers, R. D. (2017) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.05.025 · Cited by 52
“…to discontinue (or ‘quit') chasing losses is associated with activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal, anterior cingulate, striatum and parietal cortices (Campbell-Meiklejohn et al., 2008), regions that are commonly associated with networks of executive cognitive functioning (Niendam et al., 2012).”
BackgroundStaffaroni, A. M., Asken, B. M., Casaletto, K. B., Fonseca, C. S., You, M. Y., Rosen, H. J., Boxer, A. L., Elahi, F. M., Kornak, J., Mungas, D., et al. (2020) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.12214 · Cited by 48
Metadata
- Authors
- Niendam, T. A., Laird, A. R., Ray, K. L., Dean, Y. M., Glahn, D. C., & Carter, C. S.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Davis (US)
- The University of Texas at San Antonio Health Science Center (US)
- Yale University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Niendam, Tara A.
- Venue
- Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience
- Published
- 2012-01-27
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 241-268
- ISSN
- 1530-7026 (ISSN-L)
- 1531-135X
- PMC
- PMC3660731
- OpenAlex
- W2019930104
- Semantic Scholar
- 98fddd2e31078947295c667fc52d483f3e530f48
- Cited by
- 1,700
- References
- 266
- Citations by year
- 2026: 119 · 2025: 153 · 2024: 156 · 2023: 143 · 2022: 156 · 2021: 170 · 2020: 117 · 2019: 146 · 2018: 123 · 2017: 125 · 2016: 84 · 2015: 75 · 2014: 77 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 15
- FWCI
- 33.31
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (P60AA007611)
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH074457, R01MH078143, R24MH081807, R01MH059883, K23MH087708, R01MH083824)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- executive function, cognitive control, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, parietal cortex, inhibition, working memory, cognitive flexibility, basal ganglia, cerebellum, functional neuroimaging
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Brain, Brain Mapping, Cognition, Female, Humans, Functional Laterality, Male, Middle Aged, Neural Pathways, Neuropsychological Tests, Radionuclide Imaging, Visual Perception, Young Adult, Executive Function, Neuroimaging
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