Beneficial effect of high energy intake at lunch rather than dinner on weight loss in healthy obese women in a weight-loss program: a randomized clinical trial
Open accessAbstract
Background The association between the time of nutrient intake and health has been described in a few studies. To our knowledge, no study has evaluated the relation between high energy intakes at lunch compared with at dinner on weight loss in overweight and obese subjects.Objective We compared the effect of high energy intake at lunch with that at dinner on weight loss and cardiometabolic risk factors in women during a weight-loss program.Design Overweight and obese women [n = 80; body mass index (BMI; in kg/m 2): 27-35; age: 18-45 y] were asked to eat either a main meal at lunch (LM) or a main meal at dinner (DM) for 12 wk while in a weight-loss program.Results A total of 80 participants were randomly assigned to one of 2 intervention groups. Sixty-nine subjects (86%) completed the trial (34 subjects in the DM group, and 35 subjects in the LM group). Baseline variables were not significantly different between groups. A significant reduction in anthropometric measurements and significant improvements in cardiometabolic risk characteristics were observed over 12 wk in both groups. Compared with the DM group, the LM group had greater mean ± SD reductions in weight (LM: -5.85 ± 1.96 kg; DM: -4.35 ± 1.98 kg; P = 0.003), BMI (LM: 2.27± 0.76; DM: 1.68 ± 0.76; P = 0.003), homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (LM: -0.66 ± 0.33; DM: -0.46 ± 0.24; P = 0.001), and fasting insulin (LM: -2.01 ± 1.10 mIU/mL; DM: -1.16 ± 0.72 mIU/mL; P < 0.001) after 12 wk. However, there were no significant differences for fasting plasma glucose and lipid profiles within both groups after 12 wk.Conclusions The consumption of higher energy intake at lunch compared with at dinner may result in favorable changes in weight loss in overweight and obese women after a weight-loss program of 12 wk. The consumption may also offer clinical benefits to improve insulin resistance. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02399280.
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- Findingown data
In both the LM and DM groups, body weight decreased significantly after 12 weeks.
“As shown in Table 2, there was a significant weight reduction in each group after 12 wk (P , 0.001).”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“A significant reduction in anthropometric measurements and significant improvements in cardiometabolic risk characteristics were observed over 12 wk in both groups.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
- Findingown data
There were no significant differences between the LM and DM groups in lipid profiles after 12 weeks.
“but there were no significant differences between groups after 12 wk (Table2).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In both the LM and DM groups, waist circumference decreased after 12 weeks.
“In both groups, WC had decreased after 12 wk of intervention (P , 0.001) with no significant difference in WC effects between the 2 groups after the intervention.(P = 0.118).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
After 12 weeks, the LM group had a greater reduction in HOMA-IR than the DM group.
“homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (LM: 20.66 6 0.33; DM: 20.46 6 0.24; P = 0.001)”
- Also stated in: § Glucose metabolism measurement · plain
“a significant improvement in insulin resistance in the LM group compared with in the DM group after 12 wk (P , 0.001).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Glucose metabolism measurement · plain
- Findingown data
Estimated energy intake decreased significantly over time in both groups.
“Estimated energy intake measurements showed a significant reduction over time in both groups (P-time effect , 0.001).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Findingown data
Total energy and macronutrient intakes did not differ significantly between the LM and DM groups from baseline to 12 weeks.
“As shown in Table 3, there were no significant differences between groups for total energy and macronutrient intakes from baseline to 12 wk.”
- Also stated in: § Food intake measurement · plain
“At baseline, there was no significant difference in energy and macronutrient intakes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Food intake measurement · plain
- Findingown data
After 12 weeks, the LM group had a greater reduction in fasting insulin than the DM group.
“fasting insulin (LM: 22.01 6 1.10 mIU/mL; DM: 21.16 6 0.72 mIU/mL; P , 0.001) after 12 wk.”
- Also stated in: § Glucose metabolism measurement · plain
“There was a significant difference in changes in fasting serum insulin concentrations between the 2 groups after 12 wk (P , 0.001) (Table 2)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Glucose metabolism measurement · plain
- Findingown data
After 12 weeks, only fasting insulin and HOMA-IR differed significantly between the groups among glucose-metabolism measures.
“However, between-group differences were only significant for insulin and HOMA-IR after 12 wk of intervention (Table 2).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
After 12 weeks, the LM group had a greater reduction in body weight than the DM group.
“Compared with the DM group, the LM group had greater mean 6 SD reductions in weight (LM: 25.85 6 1.96 kg; DM: 24.35 6 1.98 kg; P = 0.003)”
- Also stated in: § Body weight, BMI, and WC · plain
“There was also a significant difference in weight reduction between the 2 groups after 12 wk (P = 0.002) (Table 2).”
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · boosted
“We showed that consumption of the main meal at lunch led to more weight loss and a greater improvement in insulin sensitivity as measured by HOMA-IR and fasting insulin concentrations than did eating the main meal at dinner in overweight and obese women.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Body weight, BMI, and WC · plain
- Findingown data
After 12 weeks, the LM group had a greater reduction in BMI than the DM group.
“BMI (LM: 2.276 0.76; DM: 1.68 6 0.76; P = 0.003)”
- Also stated in: § Body weight, BMI, and WC · plain
“However, the decline in BMI was greater in the LM group than in the DM group after 12 wk (Table 2) with a significant difference in BMI effects between the 2 groups (P = 0.003).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Body weight, BMI, and WC · plain
- Findingown data
In both the LM and DM groups, BMI decreased significantly after 12 weeks.
“BMI reduction in each group was in the expected direction with significant effects over 12 wk for both groups (P , 0.001).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
There was no significant difference between the LM and DM groups in waist circumference reduction after 12 weeks.
“In both groups, WC had decreased after 12 wk of intervention (P , 0.001) with no significant difference in WC effects between the 2 groups after the intervention.(P = 0.118).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In this trial, estimated energy and macronutrient intakes did not differ between the lunch and dinner groups.
“However, our data on estimated energy intakes and macronutrient compositions did not confirm this assumption and showed no differences between the 2 groups.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
This trial found a marked change in circulating insulin levels after the 12-week weight-loss intervention.
“The current study also showed a strong change in circulating insulin concentrations after the weight-loss intervention over 12 wk as expected.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
All participants in the weight-loss program lost weight consistent with their energy prescription.
“All of the participants in our weight-loss program lost weight in a way that was consistent with their energy prescription.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Over 12 weeks, insulin sensitivity seemed to improve more in the lunch group than in the dinner group.
“Despite similar changes in fasting glucose concentrations in both groups, insulin sensitivity appeared to be improved more in the LM group than in the DM group over 12 wk because of larger changes in fasting insulin.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
Over 12 weeks, the lunch group lost more weight than the dinner group.
“resulted in better weight loss in the LM group than in the DM group.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
After the intervention, fasting insulin was higher in the group that received the large energy load at dinner rather than at lunch.
“However, fasting insulin after the intervention was higher when the large energy load was given in the evening as dinner than at midday as lunch.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
This trial found no significant difference in lipid profiles between the lunch and dinner groups.
“However, our results failed to show any significant difference in lipid profiles between LM and DM groups.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
A larger lunch and smaller dinner may lead to better weight loss in overweight and obese women completing a 12-week weight-loss program.
“The consumption of higher energy intake at lunch compared with at dinner may result in favorable changes in weight loss in overweight and obese women after a weight-loss program of 12 wk.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
At baseline, the LM and DM groups did not differ significantly in physical characteristics or biochemical measurements.
“Baseline variables were not significantly different between groups.”
- Also stated in: § Baseline characteristics · plain
“At baseline, there were no significant differences in physical characteristics or biochemical measurements between intervention groups (Table 1).”
- Also stated in: § Baseline characteristics · plain
“There were no significant differences between groups at baseline.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Baseline characteristics · plain
- Interpretationown data
The larger insulin-sensitivity improvement in the lunch group was attributed to greater reductions in fasting insulin.
“because of larger changes in fasting insulin.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Intensive programs using energy restriction, activity monitoring, and frequent visits work more reliably than advice to make small, sustainable lifestyle changes.
“It has been shown that these approaches are more consistently effective than other methods that recommend small but theoretically sustainable lifestyle modifications that can be made to improve health (40).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [40] Stroebele, 2009, A small-changes approach reduces energy intake in free-living humans, J Am Coll Nutr source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data
A larger energy load at dinner might trigger a greater insulin response than the same load at lunch.
“This result might indicate that higher energy intake at dinner may cause a significantly greater insulin response than would the same meal consumed at lunch.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
The current study's results align with Garaulet et al. (23), who found that people eating later lost less weight than those eating earlier.
“Our results are consistent with the study of Garaulet et al. (23), which showed late eaters lost less weight than was lost by early eaters (23).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [23] Garaulet, 2013, Timing of food intake predicts weight loss effectiveness, Int J Obes (Lond) source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationcitation
When the main meal is eaten appears to be an independent and important determinant of successful weight loss.
“These findings confirm that the timing of the main meal independently seems to be an important factor in weightloss success.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
The trial was restricted to overweight and obese women enrolled in a formal weight-loss program.
“In addition, this study was performed only in overweight and obese women who were attending a formal weightloss program.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
For people in a weight-loss program, eating the main meal at lunch instead of dinner might improve weight loss.
“consumption of a main meal at lunch and not at dinner could improve weight loss when people use a weight-loss program.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Since participants lived freely, the findings may apply directly to overweight and obese women trying to lose weight.
“Also, because this study was conducted in a free-living population, the results can be directly related to obese and overweight women who seek to lose weight.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
The 12-week weight losses in this trial were roughly comparable to the 5-10% losses reported in those programs.
“which were approximately similar to the weight losses that we observed during 12 wk in the current study.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationcitation
The current study's weight results agree with two recent interventional studies that found favorable effects of earlier eating on weight loss.
“The results of the current study on the effect of high energy intake at dinner on weight are in agreement with those of 2 recent interventional studies (24,36) that indicated the favorable effects of early eating throughout the day on weight loss.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [24] Jakubowicz, 2013, High Caloric intake at breakfast vs. dinner differentially influences weight loss of overweight and obese women, Obesity (Silver Spring) source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [36] Kahleova, 2014, Eating two larger meals a day (breakfast and lunch) is more effective than six smaller meals in a reduced-energy regimen for patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomised crossover study, Diabetologia source
Not checked in the free run.
- May combine two claims. 15
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 21
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn both groups, FPG, fasting insulin, 2hpp glucose, HbA1c, and HOMA-IR all fell over 12 weeks.
“Fasting plasma glucose, fasting serum insulin, 2hpp glucose, glycated hemoglobin, and HOMA-IR all decreased over time in both groups (P , 0.001).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn both groups, total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triglycerides decreased and HDL cholesterol increased over 12 weeks.
“Reductions in total-cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, and triglyceride concentrations and an increase in HDL cholesterol were detected over 12 wk of the study in each group (P , 0.001), but there were no significant differences between groups after 12 wk (Table2).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingreasoningBoth groups showed decreases in waist circumference and meaningful improvements in cardiometabolic risk factors.
“In the current study, reductions in WC and significant improvements in cardiometabolic risk characteristics were observed in both groups as was expected because of the weight loss observed.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataSixty-nine of the 80 randomized participants (86%) completed the 12-week trial, with 87% of the lunch group and 85% of the dinner group remaining.
“Sixty-nine subjects (86%) completed the trial (34 subjects in the DM group, and 35 subjects in the LM group).”
- Also stated in: § Baseline characteristics · plain
“At total of 69 subjects completed the 12-wk intervention (86% of the randomly assigned population) (Figure 1).”
- Also stated in: § Baseline characteristics · plain
“At week 12, retention rates were 87% in the LM group and 85% in the DM group.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Also stated in: § Baseline characteristics · plain
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataAll randomized participants who completed an initial assessment were included in an intention-to-treat analysis, and missing 12-week values were imputed by multiple imputation with linear regression.
“All participants who were randomly assigned and completed an initial assessment were included in the final results in an intention-to-treat analysis.Multiple imputations with the use of linear regression were used to impute missing values from 12 wk and were based on the assumption that data were missing at random.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The 12-week data were missing at random.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataEighty overweight or obese women were randomly assigned 1:1 to the LM or DM group using a computer-generated random-numbers method, with allocation concealed from subjects and dietitians until the initial intervention appointment.
“Appropriate subjects were randomly assigned in a 1:1 ratio after baseline measures with the use of a computer-generated randomnumbers method by the project coordinator with allocation concealed from the subjects and dietitians until the random assignment was revealed to the study subjects at the initial intervention clinic appointment.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“A total of 80 participants were randomly assigned to one of 2 intervention groups.”
- Also stated in: § Baseline characteristics · plain
“The remaining 80 subjects gave written consent, and 40 subjects were randomly allocated to each group.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationCross-sectional and longitudinal studies link skipping breakfast and eating late at night with obesity.
“There is an association between breakfast skipping, late-night eating, and obesity as has been defined in cross-sectional (7,8) and longitudinal (9)(10)(11)(12)(13) studies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [7] De La Hunty, 2007, Are people who regularly eat breakfast cereals slimmer than those who don’t? A systematic review of the evidence, British Nutrition Foundation-Nutrition Bulletin source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [8] Szajewska, 2010, Systematic review demonstrating that breakfast consumption influences body weight outcomes in children and adolescents in Europe, Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites (9)(10)(11)(12)(13)
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductnone givenA limitation of this trial was its short intervention duration.
“In contrast, the limitation of the current study is the short-term intervention period.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoningThe participants were middle-aged overweight or obese women who could follow a weight-loss plan and were motivated to stick to the protocol.
“Second, subjects wished to lose weight, and the study included middleaged overweight and obese women who were able to comply with a weight-loss plan; thus, the women showed that they were motivated to adhere to the protocol of the weight-loss diet (44).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [44] Kraschnewski, 2010, Long-term weight loss maintenance in the United States, Int J Obes (Lond) source
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationPeople who consume a larger share of their daily energy in the evening tend to eat significantly more over the whole day.
“Conversely, when subjects eat a higher proportion of their total intake during the evening, they eat significantly more over the entire day (41).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [41] de Castro, 2004, The time of day of food intake influences overall intake in humans, J Nutr source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationMorgan et al. (43) reported worse postprandial lipid tolerance for nighttime meals than for daytime meals.
“A previous study by Morgan et al. (43) also showed an impaired postprandial lipid tolerance when meals were consumed at night compared with during the daytime.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [43] Morgan, 1999, Diurnal variations in peripheral insulin resistance and plasma non-esterified fatty acid concentrations: a possible link?, Ann Clin Biochem source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataEarlier trials enrolled people with metabolic syndrome or type 2 diabetes, while this trial enrolled healthy women who were overweight or obese.
“In addition, the previous studies involved obese and overweight participants with metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes, whereas we recruited healthy obese and overweight women.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningThe greater weight loss with a high-energy lunch versus dinner might be explained by better diet adherence in the lunch group.
“In our study, the positive effect on weight loss of high energy intake at lunch compared with at dinner may reflect better adherence to the diet in the LM group.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationOther authors did not confirm the finding that obese people eat less in the morning and more in the evening than lean controls.
“However, these results were not confirmed by other authors (16).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [16] Andersson, 1996, Meal patterns in obese and normal weight men: the’Gustaf’study, Eur J Clin Nutr
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningThe observed weight loss was expected given that the intervention involved energy restriction, activity monitoring, and frequent clinic visits and consultations.
“This finding was not unexpected because our weight-loss program included energy restriction, activity monitoring, and frequent patient visits and consultations in the clinic.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Interpretationown dataHigher energy intake at lunch rather than at dinner may offer clinical benefits for improving insulin resistance.
“The consumption may also offer clinical benefits to improve insulin resistance.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationA large breakfast and smaller dinner improved management of obesity and metabolic syndrome in a recent study.
“In addition, a recent study on the effects of a high-energy breakfast with reduced intake at dinner showed beneficial results on the management of obesity and metabolic syndrome (24).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [24] Jakubowicz, 2013, High Caloric intake at breakfast vs. dinner differentially influences weight loss of overweight and obese women, Obesity (Silver Spring) source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataIn overweight and obese women following a weight-loss program short term, eating the main meal at lunch seems to improve weight loss and insulin sensitivity.
“In conclusion, the consumption of the main meal at lunch appears to provide beneficial effects on weight loss and insulin sensitivity in overweight and obese women who are adhering to a weight-loss program over the shorter term.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationLate eating is linked to lower resting energy expenditure, lower fasting carbohydrate oxidation, and lower glucose tolerance.
“A clinical study showed that eating late in the day was associated with reductions in resting energy expenditure, fasting carbohydrate oxidation, and glucose tolerance (22).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [22] Bandin, 2015, Meal timing affects glucose tolerance, substrate oxidation and circadian-related variables: A randomized, crossover trial, Int J Obes source
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationcitationThe insulin-response result agreed with an earlier short-term trial (42) in healthy volunteers.
“This outcome was consistent with a previous short-term study (42) that was conducted in healthy volunteers with a different design and evaluated the short-term effects of high energy intake at breakfast compared with at dinner in combination with the effect of the glycemic index.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [42] Morgan, 2012, Effect of meal timing and glycaemic index on glucose control and insulin secretion in healthy volunteers, Br J Nutr source
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataA key strength was that this was a randomized outpatient clinical trial with participants on a comprehensive weight-control diet.
“The principal strengths of this study are, first, that it was a randomized, outpatient, clinical trial, in which subjects were following a comprehensive diet plan for weight control.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationEnergy and nutrient intake has gradually moved later in the day.
“Nevertheless, there has been evidence that the timing of energy and nutrient intake has shifted slightly over time with a greater proportion of intake later in the day (20).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [20] Almoosawi, 2012, Daily profiles of energy and nutrient intakes: are eating profiles changing over time, Eur J Clin Nutr source
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoningOffering a free diet plan and daily dietitian calls promoted regular biweekly dietitian visits, which helped encourage compliance in both groups.
“Third, the provision of a free diet plan and a daily telephone call from a dietitian to each subject was an encouragement for regular biweekly visits with the dietitian when compliance could be encouraged in both groups.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationA greater share of daily energy at midday is linked to lower overweight/obesity risk, whereas a greater share in the evening is linked to higher risk.
“Data from a recent observational study (21) also indicated that eating more of daily total energy intake at midday was associated with lower risk of being overweight or obese, whereas consuming more in the evening was associated with higher risk.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [21] Wang, 2014, Timing of energy intake during the day is associated with the risk of obesity in adults, J Hum Nutr Diet source
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationPrior intensive clinic-based behavioral lifestyle-modification programs have reported 5-10% weight losses at 6 months.
“In intensive, clinic-based behavioral lifestyle-modification programs, weight losses of 5-10% have been detected at 6 mo (37-39)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [37] Wing, 2010, Long term effects of a lifestyle intervention on weight and cardiovascular risk factors in individuals with type 2 diabetes: four year results of the Look AHEAD trial, Arch Intern Med
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [38] Appel, 2003, Effects of comprehensive lifestyle modification on blood pressure control: main results of the PREMIER clinical trial, JAMA
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- cites [39] Knowler, 2002, Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin, N Engl J Med source
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe weight-loss diet used here was low in fat, unlike the design of Morgan et al. (43), which had no weight-loss plan.
“Note that our recommended diet for weight loss contained a low percentage of fat, whereas the study by Morgan et al. (43) had a different design in terms of not including any weight-loss plan.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [43] Morgan, 1999, Diurnal variations in peripheral insulin resistance and plasma non-esterified fatty acid concentrations: a possible link?, Ann Clin Biochem source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationCompared with lean controls, obese individuals tend to consume less in the morning and more in the evening.
“Previous studies have indicated that obese people tend to eat less in the morning and more in the evening than do lean controls (10,11,14,15).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [10] Berkey, 2003, Longitudinal study of skipping breakfast and weight change in adolescents, Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [11] Bellisle, 1988, Obesity and food intake in children: Evidence for a role of metabolic and/or behavioral daily rhythms, Appetite source
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- cites [14] Fricker, 1990, Circadian rhythm of energy intake and corpulence status in adults, Int J Obes
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- cites [15] Bertéus Forslund, 2002, Meal patterns and obesity in Swedish women-a simple instrument describing usual meal types, frequency and temporal distribution, Eur J Clin Nutr source
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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationEating lunch late may harm the success of weight-loss treatment.
“Additional evidence indicated that late-lunch eating may have deleterious effects on the success of weight-loss therapy (23).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [23] Garaulet, 2013, Timing of food intake predicts weight loss effectiveness, Int J Obes (Lond) source
Not checked in the free run.
The authors state this as an assumption.
The 12-week data were missing at random.
“Multiple imputations with the use of linear regression were used to impute missing values from 12 wk and were based on the assumption that data were missing at random.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
At baseline, all variables were normally distributed.
“At baseline, the distribution was normal for all variables.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Before this trial, the lunch-versus-dinner energy comparison had not been tested for weight loss in overweight or obese people.
“To our knowledge, no study has evaluated the relation between high energy intakes at lunch compared with at dinner on weight loss in overweight and obese subjects.”
“To our knowledge, there are few studies that have evaluated whether higher energy intake at lunch than at dinner results in greater weight loss in overweight and obese subjects when they are consuming an energy-restricted diet.In addition, this comparison has not been made with respect to lipid and glucose metabolism in this group.”
The paper relies on this without support.
No earlier randomized trial had tested whether main-meal timing affects weight loss.
“To our knowledge, this is the first randomized controlled trial of the effect on weight loss of the timing of the main meal.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In women with overweight or obesity, consumption of a higher energy intake at lunch compared with at dinner may result in greater weight loss and improvement in insulin sensitivity after a 12-week weight loss programme.
“In our recent intervention study (14) , we showed that the consumption of a higher energy intake at lunch compared with at dinner may result in greater weight loss and improvement in insulin sensitivity, in women with overweight or obesity after a 12-week weight loss programme.”
From Effects of consuming later evening meal<i>v</i>. earlier evening meal on weight loss during a weight loss diet: a randomised clinical trial (2021) · cites this paper as [14]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Abstract reverses the within-group glucose finding
MinorThe abstract says fasting plasma glucose did not change significantly within the groups, but the results report a significant decrease in both groups.
“However, there were no significant differences for fasting plasma glucose and lipid profiles within both groups after 12 wk.”
“Fasting plasma glucose, fasting serum insulin, 2hpp glucose, glycated hemoglobin, and HOMA-IR all decreased over time in both groups (P , 0.001).”
Stated LDL formula conflicts with the tabulated LDL values
MinorThe stated formula adds the triglyceride term. Using the DM baseline values in Table 1, it gives approximately 4.08 mmol/L, not the reported 2.64 mmol/L; subtracting that term gives approximately 2.64 mmol/L.
“LDL cholesterol was calculated with the use of Friedewald's formula (35) as LDL cholesterol ¼ total cholesterol 2 HDL cholesterol þ ðTGO2:2Þ ð 2Þ”
“| Total cholesterol, mmol/L | 4.56 6 0.48 | 4.59 6 0.46 | | HDL cholesterol, mmol/L | 1.2 6 0.13 | 1.22 6 0.17 | | LDL cholesterol, mmol/L | 2.64 6 0.49 | 2.66 6 0.55 | | Triglyceride, mmol/L | 1.58 6 0.24 | 1.57 6 0.27 |”
Abstract reverses the within-group lipid findings
MinorThe abstract reports no significant within-group lipid differences, whereas the results report significant lipid changes in each group.
“However, there were no significant differences for fasting plasma glucose and lipid profiles within both groups after 12 wk.”
“Reductions in total-cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, and triglyceride concentrations and an increase in HDL cholesterol were detected over 12 wk of the study in each group (P , 0.001), but there were no significant differences between groups after 12 wk (Table2).”
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Complex physiology and clinical implications of time-restricted eating
Petersen, M. C., Gallop, M. R., Ramos, S. F., Zarrinpar, A., Broussard, J. L., Chondronikola, M., Chaix, A., & Klein, S. (2022) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00006.2022 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Fong, M., Caterson, I. D., & Madigan, C. D. (2017) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114517002550 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“, 2016((33)) Low risk of bias: computer-generated random numbers method by project coordinator; women only Low risk of bias: allocation concealed from subjects and dietitians until first intervention appointment Low risk of bias: allocation concealed from subjects and dietitians until first intervention appointment Lo…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialHernández-García, J., Navas-Carrillo, D., & Orenes‐Piñero, E. (2019) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2018.1556579 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“A more recent study, also performed in obese women, showed that if the highest caloric contribution takes place in the lunch compared with the dinner, higher loss of weight (p¼ 0.003), greater BMI reduction (p¼ 0.003) and minor levels of fasting insulin (p< 0.001) were obtained (Madjd et al. 2016).”
ResultInfluentialDiet, exercise and weight loss and dyslipidaemia
Clifton, P. M. (2018) · Pathology · doi:10.1016/j.pathol.2018.10.013 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Co-Design Practices in Diet and Nutrition Research: An Integrative Review
Tay, B. S. J., Cox, D. N., Brinkworth, G. D., Davis, A., Edney, S. M., Gwilt, I., & Ryan, J. C. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13103593 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“(2016) [46]: To compare the effect of high energy intake at lunch with that at dinner on weight loss and cardiometabolic risk factors in women during a weight loss program.”
BackgroundInfluentialDietary modifications for weight loss and weight loss maintenance
Yannakoulia, M., Poulimeneas, D., Mamalaki, E., & Anastasiou, C. A. (2019) · Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2019.01.001 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
A scoping review of intermittent fasting, chronobiology, and metabolism
Santos, H. O., Genário, R., Tinsley, G. M., de Carvalho, P. R., Carteri, R. B., Coelho‐Ravagnani, C. D. F., & Mota, J. F. (2021) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqab433 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Mentzelou, M., Papadopoulou, S. Κ., Papandreou, D., Spanoudaki, M., Dakanalis, A., Vasios, G. K., Voulgaridou, G., Pavlidou, E., Mantzorou, M., & Giaginis, C. (2023) · Metabolites · doi:10.3390/metabo13030370 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Meal Timing and Anthropometric and Metabolic Outcomes
Liu, H. Y., Eso, A. A., Cook, N., O’Neill, H. M., & Albarqouni, L. (2024) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.42163 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Distribution of energy intake across the day and weight loss: A systematic review and meta‐analysis
Young, I. E., Poobalan, A. S., Steinbeck, K. S., O'Connor, H. T., & Parker, H. M. (2022) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/obr.13537 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“3 kg (Supporting Information).(34,36,38,41,42) One study(40) reported a 16-week postintervention follow-up period, during which the participants who were originally advised to consume a greater proportion of their total energy intake energy intake earlier in the day continued to lose weight postintervention, whereas t…”
BackgroundJung, H., Dan, H., Pang, Y., et al. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17207697 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“A study that applied the weight-loss program to overweight or obese women of childbearing age also revealed that consuming more calories at lunch than dinner was effective in weight loss, BMI reduction, and insulin resistance improvement [51].”
BackgroundMadjd, A., Taylor, M. A., Delavari, A., Malekzadeh, R., Macdonald, I. A., & Farshchi, H. R. (2021) · British Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114520004456 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“In our recent intervention study (14) , we showed that the consumption of a higher energy intake at lunch compared with at dinner may result in greater weight loss and improvement in insulin sensitivity, in women with overweight or obesity after a 12-week weight loss programme.”
Self-citationEffects of exercise timing on metabolic health
Martínez‐Montoro, J. I., Benítez‐Porres, J., Tinahones, F. J., Ortega‐Gómez, A., & Murri, M. (2023) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/obr.13599 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Chrono‐nutrition – an emerging, modifiable risk factor for chronic disease?
Pot, G. K. (2021) · Nutrition Bulletin · doi:10.1111/nbu.12498 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Other studies have shown the importance of meal frequency and/ or meal irregularity for cardiometabolic health (Farshchi et al., 2004; Farshchi et al., 2005; Madjd et al., 2016; Pot et al., 2016).”
BackgroundAssociation of meal timing with body composition and cardiometabolic risk factors in young adults
Dote‐Montero, M., Acosta, F. M., Sánchez‐Delgado, G., Merchán-Ramírez, E., Amaro‐Gahete, F. J., Labayen, I., & Ruiz, J. R. (2023) · European Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s00394-023-03141-9 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Examining the Role of Exercise Timing in Weight Management: A Review
Blankenship, J. M., Rosenberg, R. C., Rynders, C. A., Melanson, E. L., Catenacci, V. A., & Creasy, S. A. (2021) · International Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1055/a-1485-1293 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Murube, M. C., Borregon-Rivilla, E., Colmenarejo, G., Aguilar-Aguilar, E., Martínez, J. A., de Molina, A. R., Reglero, G., & Loria‐Kohen, V. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12041142 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“This finding corroborates previous studies [11,12] that support better nutritional and health status when a higher proportion of carbohydrates is made in the first half of the day.”
BackgroundResultGuan, V. X., Probst, Y., Neale, E. P., Batterham, M. J., & Tapsell, L. C. (2018) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114518001587 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“To date, accumulated evidence has suggested that daily energy intake distribution of main meals plays an important role in the effectiveness of achieving weight-loss goals and adhering to a weight-loss plan in the long term((17)), particularly for reducing intake at dinner((45,46)).”
BackgroundDo Temporal Eating Patterns Differ in Healthy versus Unhealthy Overweight/Obese Individuals?
Mazri, F. H., Manaf, Z. A., Shahar, S., Ludin, A. F. M., Karim, N. A., Hazwari, N., Kek, Q., Basir, S. M. A., & Arifin, A. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13114121 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Majdi, M., Imani, H., Bazshahi, E., Hosseini, F. S., Djafarian, K., Lesani, A., Akbarzade, Z., & Shab‐Bidar, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2022.763345 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“In addition, the inclusion of lunch as the main meal, compared to dinner, seems to have beneficial effects on reducing MetS risk factors (69).”
BackgroundFood Myths or Food Facts? Study about Perceptions and Knowledge in a Portuguese Sample
Florença, S. G., Ferreira, M., Lacerda, I., & Maia, A. (2021) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods10112746 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Several studies defend that, for weight loss, the largest meal should be consumed at breakfast or lunch and not in the evening [36,37].”
BackgroundDíaz‐Rizzolo, D. A., Baez, L. S. S., Popp, C. J., Borhan, R., Sordi‐Guth, A., Manoogian, E. N. C., Panda, S., Cheng, B., & Laferrère, B. (2024) · Nutrition and Diabetes · doi:10.1038/s41387-024-00347-6 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Five Evidence-Based Lifestyle Habits People With Diabetes Can Use
Chacko, E., & Signore, C. (2020) · Clinical Diabetes · doi:10.2337/cd19-0078 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“A high-energy lunch has been found to be better than a high-energy supper (20).”
BackgroundCadegiani, F. A., Diniz, G. C., & Alves, G. (2017) · BMC Obesity · doi:10.1186/s40608-017-0147-3 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Mazri, F. H., Manaf, Z. A., Shahar, S., Ludin, A. F. M., & Basir, S. M. A. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19084469 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Previous intervention studies that implemented temporal energy patterns suggested alteration of energy intake during main meals (breakfast, lunch or dinner) and prescribed greater energy intake during the earlier meals of the day and less intake during later meals of the day [15,16,26].”
BackgroundPapadopoulou, R., Theodorou, M. R., Ieong, C. S., Ballantyne, K., Marshall, D., Verney, A., Roig, M. J., Nichols, B., & Gerasimidis, K. (2020) · Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism · doi:10.1159/000510646 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Lesani, A., Djafarian, K., Akbarzade, Z., Janbozorgi, N., & Shab‐Bidar, S. (2022) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114521005067 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Accumulating evidence suggests that breakfast skipping(12,13), energy contribution by meals(14,15) and the number of eating occasions could affect health outcomes(8,16).”
BackgroundBillingsley, H. (2023) · Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews · doi:10.1002/dmrr.3633 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Li, X., Chen, P., Zhang, Y., Zhang, J., Shen, S., & Li, K. (2023) · Food Frontiers · doi:10.1002/fft2.243 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Andriessen, C., Schrauwen, P., & Hoeks, J. (2020) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/s41366-020-00719-9 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Turner‐McGrievy, G. M., Wirth, M. D., Bernhart, J. A., & Aydin, H. Z. (2022) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2022.106135 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Eating Patterns of Young Women (18–25 y) with Overweight and Obesity: A Preliminary Investigation
Young, I. E., Crino, N. D., Steinbeck, K. S., & Parker, H. M. (2023) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15071652 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Research has also shown that encouraging a shift in energy intake to favour the morning can result in greater weight loss in older adults engaging in weight loss interventions when compared to equally energy-restricted diets that do not emphasise earlier distributed energy intake [21,23,24].”
BackgroundLesani, A., Jayedi, A., Karimi, M., Djafarian, K., Barkhidarian, B., Akbarzade, Z., & Shab‐Bidar, S. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-34235-3 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
KONSUMSI MAKAN SIANG DAN JAJANAN KAITANNYA DENGAN PRODUKTIVITAS KERJA DAN STATUS GIZI GURU
Melani, V., Ronitawati, P., Swamilaksita, P. D., Sitoayu, L., Dewanti, L. P., & Hayatunnufus, F. (2022) · Journal of Nutrition College · doi:10.14710/jnc.v11i2.33178 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Mazri, F. H., Manaf, Z. A., Shahar, S., Ludin, A. F. M., & Karim, N. A. (2023) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2023.2165092 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Moreover, some earlier works on related chrononutrition research did not describe the chronotypes (Jakubowicz et al. 2013; Madjd et al. 2016) and participant’s work schedule (Hatanaka et al. 2022) which are the crucial determinants of food timing that can affect the adherence and successfulness of…”
BackgroundCrimarco, A. E., Turner‐McGrievy, G. M., & Wirth, M. D. (2018) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2018.1481074 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Jayedi, A., Neyestanak, M. S., Djafarian, K., & Shab‐Bidar, S. (2023) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s000711452300096x · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…addition, two randomised trials implementing a weight loss intervention indicated that participants with a high energy intake at breakfast and lunch meals and a low energy intake at dinner meals experienced a greater weight loss and reduction in insulin resistance than other participants (65,66) .”
BackgroundChacko, E. (2022) · Clinical Diabetes · doi:10.2337/cd22-0076 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Barnadas-Solé, C., Zerón-Rugerio, M. F., Hernáez, Á., Foncillas-Corvinos, J., Cambras, T., & Izquierdo-Pulido, M. (2021) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/s41366-021-00859-6 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Eberli, N., Colas, L., & Gimalac, A. (2024) · Journal of Chinese Integrative Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.joim.2024.02.002 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Temporal control of eating and body weight by GHSR-expressing suprachiasmatic nucleus neurons
Singh, O., Sheybani-Deloui, S., Kulkarni, S., Lyu, M., Li, B., Varshney, S., Shankar, K., Gupta, D., Mercado, L. L., Burstein, A. W., et al. (2025) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2025.116213 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“11,12 These types of observations have led to proposals for time-based eating interventions to promote metabolic health, including those restricting meals to early parts of the active phase.”
Frequency of Eating and Type 2 Diabetes: A Systematic Review
Heymsfield, S. B., Boushey, C. J., Leidy, H. J., Mattes, R. D., Kleinman, R. E., Callahan, E. H., Butera, G., Terry, N. L., & Obbagy, J. (2020) · doi:10.52570/nesr.dgac2020.sr0603 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Frequency of Eating and Cardiovascular Disease: A Systematic Review
Heymsfield, S. B., Boushey, C. J., Leidy, H. J., Mattes, R. D., Kleinman, R. E., Callahan, E. H., Butera, G., Terry, N. L., & Obbagy, J. (2020) · doi:10.52570/nesr.dgac2020.sr0602 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Salazar, P., Poínhos, R., & Correia, F. (2024) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2024.2393873 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…to find associations between earlier energy consumption and better glucose or lipid metabolism or obesity level, although it is possible that this strategy improves weight loss efficiency among obese patients, as shown in controlled randomized trials (Jakubowicz et al. 2013; Madjd et al. 2016).”
Inflammatory potential of the diet
Wirth, M. D., & Burch, J. B. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-822130-3.00013-2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
What, when and why we eat: Associations with obesity in adults
Fong, M. (2019) · The Sydney eScholarship Repository (The University of Sydney) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Effects of Evening Meal Timing on Weight Loss: A Pilot Open-Labelled Randomized Clinical Trial
Mansoori, A., Khosravi, M., & Asadi, M. (2020) · Journal of Advances in Medical and Biomedical Research · doi:10.30699/jambs.28.126.41 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Additionally, a three-month randomized control trial showed that higher energy intake at lunch is significantly associated with greater weight loss than higher energy intake at dinner (17).”
BackgroundCultural Practices Doing Harm to Diabetes Management: A Physician-Patient’s Perspective
(2022) · International Journal of Diabetes & Metabolic Disorders · doi:10.33140/ijdmd.07.02.20 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Frequency of Eating during Pregnancy and Gestational Weight Gain: A Systematic Review
Heymsfield, S. B., Boushey, C. J., Leidy, H. J., Mattes, R. D., Kleinman, R. E., Callahan, E. H., Butera, G., Terry, N. L., & Obbagy, J. (2020) · doi:10.52570/nesr.dgac2020.sr0605
Hauptmahlzeit am Mittag macht schlank
Wirth, A. G. (2017) · MMW - Fortschritte der Medizin · doi:10.1007/s15006-017-9212-6
Die Hauptmahlzeit mittags oder abends?
Wirth, A. G. (2016) · CardioVasc · doi:10.1007/s15027-016-1039-z
Chrono Biological Considerations in Food Safety
Sarker, A., Datta, I., Bose, A., Dey, S., Das, D., Budathoki, U., & Goswami, R. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-94582-3_2
Bullock, S. L., Winthrop, H. M., Ammerman, A. S., et al. (2022) · Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1016/j.jand.2022.08.122
Keine kardiovaskuläre Demenzprävention?
Weih, M. (2017) · MMW - Fortschritte der Medizin · doi:10.1007/s15006-017-9215-3
Medina, A. L. B. (2017) · Universidad San Ignacio de Loyola · doi:10.20511/usil.thesis/2906
A metabolically healthy lifestyle
Andriessen, C. (2023) · doi:10.26481/dis.20230706ca
- Authors
- Madjd, A., Taylor, M. A., Delavari, A., Malekzadeh, R., Macdonald, I. A., & Farshchi, H. R.
- Affiliations
- University of Nottingham (GB)
- Digestive Disease Research Institute (IR)
- Corresponding author
- Farshchi, Hamid R
- Venue
- The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2016-10
- Volume
- 104
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 982-989
- ISSN
- 0002-9165 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2514370557
- Semantic Scholar
- dde8e883310482fe725b4d7306c6392b53ec6640
- Cited by
- 56
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2025: 2 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 3.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Repository@Nottingham (University of Nottingham) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- Repository@Nottingham (University of Nottingham) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Nottingham ePrints (University of Nottingham) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- School of Life Sciences
- University of Nottingham
- Digestive Disease Research Institute
- Tehran University of Medical Sciences
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Dietary Effects on Health
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Keywords
- meal timing, weight loss, obesity, overweight women, insulin resistance, cardiometabolic risk factors, fasting insulin, body mass index, fasting blood glucose, lipid profile
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Blood Glucose, Energy Intake, Diet, Reducing, Feeding Behavior, Female, Humans, Insulin, Insulin Resistance, Lipids, Obesity, Weight Loss, Body Mass Index, Weight Reduction Programs, Meals, Lunch
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