Timing of food intake predicts weight loss effectiveness
Open accessAbstract
Background There is emerging literature demonstrating a relationship between the timing of feeding and weight regulation in animals. However, whether the timing of food intake influences the success of a weight-loss diet in humans is unknown.Objective To evaluate the role of food timing in weight-loss effectiveness in a sample of 420 individuals who followed a 20-week weight-loss treatment.Methods Participants (49.5% female subjects; age (mean ± s.d.): 42 ± 11 years; BMI: 31.4 ± 5.4 kg m(-2)) were grouped in early eaters and late eaters, according to the timing of the main meal (lunch in this Mediterranean population). 51% of the subjects were early eaters and 49% were late eaters (lunch time before and after 1500 hours, respectively), energy intake and expenditure, appetite hormones, CLOCK genotype, sleep duration and chronotype were studied.Results Late lunch eaters lost less weight and displayed a slower weight-loss rate during the 20 weeks of treatment than early eaters (P=0.002). Surprisingly, energy intake, dietary composition, estimated energy expenditure, appetite hormones and sleep duration was similar between both groups. Nevertheless, late eaters were more evening types, had less energetic breakfasts and skipped breakfast more frequently that early eaters (all; P<0.05). CLOCK rs4580704 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) associated with the timing of the main meal (P=0.015) with a higher frequency of minor allele (C) carriers among the late eaters (P=0.041). Neither sleep duration, nor CLOCK SNPs or morning/evening chronotype was independently associated with weight loss (all; P>0.05).Conclusions Eating late may influence the success of weight-loss therapy. Novel therapeutic strategies should incorporate not only the caloric intake and macronutrient distribution - as is classically done - but also the timing of food.
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Late lunch eaters had smaller weight loss than early lunch eaters during a weight loss intervention.
“Considering the timing of specific meals, a recent study showed that late lunch eaters had smaller weight loss than early lunch eaters during a weight loss intervention (15) .”
From Effects of consuming later evening meal<i>v</i>. earlier evening meal on weight loss during a weight loss diet: a randomised clinical trial (2021) · cites this paper as [15]
A previous study showed that late lunch eaters lost less weight and displayed a slower weight loss rate during 20 weeks than early eaters, but energy intake was similar between groups.
“A previous study also showed that late lunch eaters lost less weight and displayed a slower weight loss rate during the 20 weeks of treatment than early eaters, but surprisingly, energy intake was similar between both groups (15) .”
From Effects of consuming later evening meal<i>v</i>. earlier evening meal on weight loss during a weight loss diet: a randomised clinical trial (2021) · cites this paper as [15]
A previous study showed that late eaters lost less weight than early eaters.
“Our results are also in agreement with the study which showed that late eaters lost less weight than early eaters (15) .”
From Effects of consuming later evening meal<i>v</i>. earlier evening meal on weight loss during a weight loss diet: a randomised clinical trial (2021) · cites this paper as [15]
Late main meal timing hinders intended weight loss or even the therapeutic effect of bariatric surgery.
“These findings are supported by further clinical studies, suggesting that late main meal timing hinders intended weight loss (62) or even the therapeutic effect of bariatric surgery.”
From Meal timing and its role in obesity and associated diseases (2024) · cites this paper as [62]
Obese participants carrying the minor G allele of the CLOCK gene rs4580704 variant had lunch significantly later than participants carrying major alleles.
“obese participants carrying the minor G allele had their lunch significantly later than participants carrying major alleles (62).”
From Meal timing and its role in obesity and associated diseases (2024) · cites this paper as [62]
Eating lunch late may harm the success of weight-loss treatment.
“Additional evidence indicated that late-lunch eating may have deleterious effects on the success of weight-loss therapy (23).”
The current study's results align with Garaulet et al. (23), who found that people eating later lost less weight than those eating earlier.
“Our results are consistent with the study of Garaulet et al. (23), which showed late eaters lost less weight than was lost by early eaters (23).”
Eating lunch late increases insulin resistance (higher HOMA-IR) in overweight and obese subjects.
“Eating lunch late increased IR (higher HOMA-IR) in overweight and obese subjects [312]”
From Effects of diet, lifestyle, Chrononutrition and alternative dietary interventions on postprandial Glycemia and insulin resistance (2022) · cites this paper as [312]
Consuming lunch later rather than early (after 15:00-16:00 h) is associated with worse glycemic control.
“Likewise, consuming lunch later rather than early (after 15:00–16:00 h) in the day, has also been associated negatively with glycemic control (Table 2).”
From Effects of diet, lifestyle, Chrononutrition and alternative dietary interventions on postprandial Glycemia and insulin resistance (2022) · cites this paper as [312]
Greater weight loss was observed in early eaters (before 15:00) vs later eaters (after 15:00).
“Greater weight loss was observed in early eaters (before 15:00) vs later eaters (after 15:00) [312].”
From Effects of diet, lifestyle, Chrononutrition and alternative dietary interventions on postprandial Glycemia and insulin resistance (2022) · cites this paper as [312]
Later meal timing has been associated with resistance to weight loss interventions.
“This is important because later meal timing has been associated with weight gain [29] as well as resistance to weight loss interventions [30].”
From Smoking, screen-based sedentary behavior, and diet associated with habitual sleep duration and chronotype: data from the UK Biobank (2016) · cites this paper as [30]
Timed feeding may enhance weight loss and glycemic control in humans.
“Although much work remains to be done, human studies already suggest that timed feeding may translate into a beneficial approach to enhance weight loss and glycemic control in humans (87)(88)(89).”
From Circadian rhythms, metabolism, and chrononutrition in rodents and humans (2016) · cites this paper as [89]
In the human studies of timed feeding, there were no differences in self-reported physical activity level and caloric intake.
“In the human studies mentioned above, there were no differences in self-reported physical activity level and caloric intake.”
From Circadian rhythms, metabolism, and chrononutrition in rodents and humans (2016) · cites this paper as [89]
In the NHANES analysis, the direction of the association between eating frequency and overweight and obesity radically changed when adjustment for dietary misreporting was not taken into account.
“However, the direction of the association between eating frequency and overweight and obesity radically changed when adjustment for dietary misreporting was not taken into account, highlighting the need to consider dietary mis-reporting in these types of analyses.”
From Meal irregularity and cardiometabolic consequences: results from observational and intervention studies (2016) · cites this paper as [65]
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- Authors
- Garaulet, M., Gómez-Abellán, P., Alburquerque-Béjar, J. J., Lee, Y.-C., Ordovás, J. M., & Scheer, F. A. J. L.
- Affiliations
- Universidad de Murcia (ES)
- Tufts University (US)
- Brigham and Women's Hospital (US)
- Corresponding author
- Garaulet, M
- Venue
- International Journal of Obesity
- Published
- 2013-01-29
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 604-611
- ISSN
- 0307-0565 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-5497
- PMC
- PMC3756673
- OpenAlex
- W1978111787
- Cited by
- 639
- References
- 55
- Citations by year
- 2026: 35 · 2025: 44 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 56 · 2021: 59 · 2020: 77 · 2019: 46 · 2018: 38 · 2017: 52 · 2016: 47 · 2015: 48 · 2014: 32 · 2013: 14
- FWCI
- 32.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Update notices
- erratum (2013-04-09)
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- International Journal of Obesity (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Agriculture
- National Evidence-based Healthcare Collaborating Agency
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (HL54776, R01HL094806, R01HL054776)
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (R21DK089378, DK-075030, R01DK075030)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Dietary Effects on Health
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Keywords
- meal timing, weight loss, breakfast skipping, appetite-regulating hormones, energy expenditure, energy intake, circadian clock, clock genes, chronotype, sleep duration, Mediterranean populations
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Energy Intake, Circadian Rhythm, Energy Metabolism, Feeding Behavior, Female, Genotype, Humans, Male, Obesity, Predictive Value of Tests, Surveys and Questionnaires, Sleep, Spain, Time Factors, Weight Loss, Body Mass Index, Treatment Outcome, Leptin, Diet, Mediterranean, Ghrelin, CLOCK Proteins, Weight Reduction Programs
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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