#HashtagActivism

“Thus, hashtagging increases the level of engagement of users.(31) We also caution that opinions on Twitter may not be generalizable to the population, and there are potential selection biases on who uses the platform.”

“Social media—especially the use of the hashtag #BlackLivesMatter—allowed the movement to scale rapidly (Mundt et al., 2018), as well as to gain significant mass media attention (Freelon et al., 2018) and disrupt counter-narratives (Gallagher et al., 2018; Jackson et al., 2020).”

“Recent research has argued for greater nuance in the discussion of hashtag activism, arguing this type of allyship toward particular causes can still function positively, where every meme and post works toward the goal (Jackson et al., 2020).”

“…hashtag feminism has been especially embraced by intersectional feminists, namely, women of color, sparked by Moya Bailey’s (2021) articulation of misogynoir, which is the meeting point of racialized and sexualized violence against Black women, especially in digital spaces (Jackson et al., 2020).”

“Social media are notable for creating spaces where historically disenfranchised individuals can come together and share their stories at an unprecedented scale [34–36].”

“…have described “cancelations” and “callouts” as a distributed type of unpaid labor taking place among traditionally marginalized groups who aim to hold elite public figures accountable for offensive, immoral, or unjust behavior (Clark, 2020; Jackson et al., 2020; Lawson, 2021; Nakamura, 2015).”

“Building on the work of Jackson et al. (2020), we examine the diverse forms of resistance and voices across varying geopolitical locations, and discuss a range of digital feminist activist initiatives emerging prior to #MeToo.”

“Platforms like Twitter have created a public domain in which longstanding gatekeeping roles lose prominence and nontraditional media actors can also shape the agenda, increasing the public representation of voices that would otherwise be ignored (1, 2).”

“Similarly, incorporating newer normative perspectives (e.g., network public sphere theory; Jackson et al., 2020) can help theorize the different function political expression plays for different communities (e.”

“The #GirlLikeUs transgender justice campaign, or the #SayHerName movement to raise awareness about Black women victims of police brutality, flourished and thrived on the platform [27].”

“…to successfully address issues of racial inequality and (in)justice, there is a need for ‘white allyship’– that there is support from privileged white community members, who through racially aware, active efforts, work to propel the cause of the movement (Clark, 2019; Jackson et al., 2020).”

“Furthermore, enthusiasm for the empowering potential of social media (Gerbaudo, 2012; Jackson et al., 2020) to promote social activism is tempered by evidence of data and information manipulation, as well as the media owners’ lack of transparency and/or accountability to the public.”

“Influencers used social media to promote messages of social and racial justice, with viral movements and hashtags such as #BlackLivesMatter, #JusticeForTrayvon, and #SayHerName (Jackson et al., 2020).”

“For example, scholars from political science have addressed the use of algorithms on Twitter to pursue social change and insert alternative narratives through the notion of ‘hashtag activism’ (Jackson et al., 2020).”

“Previous studies argue that hashtag activism remains the dominant style of left-wing movements online (Freelon et al., 2020; Jackson et al., 2020), and a critical way to trace and expand related activities (Bonilla & Rosa, 2015; Freelon et al., 2018).”

“Termed Hashtag Activism, movements including #MeToo and #Sayhername have been used to present counternarratives and build networks of dissent based around personal expression of those often not included in the media elite (Jackson et al., 2020).”

“…mainstream news often overlooks Black women’s experiences with state-sanctioned police violence, and #YouOkaySis created by Feminista Jones, which calls attention to the street harassment faced by women of color, they become discoverable to broader audiences (Conley, 2017; Jackson et al., 2020).”

“…activism (Yang, 2009), internet activism (Tatarchevskiy, 2011), net activism (Meikle, 2010), social media activism (Miller, 2017), hashtag activism (Jackson et al., 2020), as well as keyword combinations of synonyms for both ‘ digital ’ and ‘ activism ’ (cf. appendix 1; also see Özkula, 2021).”

“Advancements in digital communications technology further facilitate the online allyship of marginalized groups and give rise to hashtag activism that advocates for social change, identity politics, and political inclusion (Jackson, Bailey, and Foucault Welles 2020, xxviii).”

“Beyond language and emotion in Black Lives Matter tweets, other work has examined the motivations and identities of individuals involved, including the prominence of female activists (1), the demographics of Twitter users (56), the roles that activists take (5), communication networks and widely shared content (4), es…”

“’ As such, ‘ hashtag activism ’ is an important organizing tool for activists trying to galvanize social movements (Jackson et al., 2020).”

“Furthermore, this research builds on prior work that explores counterpublics (Groshek and Han 2011; Hill 2018; Jackson et al. 2020) and racial safe havens (Tynes et al. 2011) and adds an investigation of not just online resistance activities but also the connection between online resistance and…”

“While scholars have consistently noted the ways social media platforms have provided a space for Black women’s community-building and collective action (e.g., Bailey, 2021; Jackson et al., 2020; Jones, 2019), over the past year, we have increasingly seen Black women, who engage in discourse and content creation across…”

“These forms fall within hashtag activism, which refers to demonstrative practices that allow to aid “ordinary people and those without access to traditional forms of power create compelling, unignorable narratives” (Jackson et al., 2020, p. 185).”

“This intersectional networked counterpublic (Jackson and Foucault Welles, 2015; Jackson et al., 2020; Squires, 2002; Warner, 2002) challenges histories of trans misrepresentation and ongoing violence through an amplification of individual users’ voices that, within the collective force of the hashtag, signals how shar…”

“Hashtags in particular have acted as powerful social coordinators[1], playing a key role in organizing social movements like the Gezi park protests, Occupy Wall Street, #metoo, and #blacklivesmatter [2, 3, 4].”

“More specifically, we consider hashtags as key devices to enact networked framing practices within networked publics [21, 23, 54, 2] and, following Recuero et al.”

“They are usually associated with a hashtag, hence they are sometimes alternatively described as ‘hashtag campaigns’ (Jackson et al., 2020; Yang, 2016).”

“In particular, social media have provided alternative structures and spaces for traditionally marginalized groups, such as women and sexual violence survivors, to project their voices, legitimize their experiences, and challenge mainstream narratives (Jackson et al., 2020).”

“Jackson et al. (2020) also discussed how hashtag feminism provides rape victims with a community of support who acknowledge their pain, narrative, and isolation.”

“If it is an “emerging field” then, it is a narrow one in its jurisdiction, and generally concerned with social media and democratic ills, not the potential of social media and social movements to create “radical possibilities for contemporary democracy” (Jackson et al. 2020: xxxviii).”

“[62] S.”

“…a community of solidarity, in which individuals who previously felt politically isolated or outnumbered are able to find understanding and support, akin to online communities of solidarity commonly established by other marginalized groups (e.g., Jackson et al., 2018, 2020; McKenna & Bargh, 1998).”

“…have created alternative spaces for traditionally marginalized groups, including sexual violence survivors, to legitimize their experiences (Jackson et al., 2020), connect with each other through a ff ective and latent ties (Papacharissi, 2016), and employ multiple platforms to challenge,…”

“users’ political expression has not explicitly used social identity theory, their findings indicate that social media offer ample opportunities for marginalized groups to respond to identity threats (Jackson et al., 2020).”

“#MGTOW has more negative sentiment, which proves that the communication is focused on criticism and attack (Jones et al. 2019) compared to #feminism, which is more positive and supportive (Clark-Parsons 2019; Jackson, Bailey, and Foucault Welles 2020).”

“Hashtags allow users to circumvent traditional media and engage in public speech (Jackson et al., 2020).”

“The moralization of a social issue (e.g., police brutality) is a complex process confounded with racial and political factors (Jackson et al., 2020).”

“Hashtags first appeared in the late 1990s when the “pound sign” became a common way to group items in conversation on different digital platforms (Jackson et al., 2020).”

“For example, hashtag use on Twitter has been studied in relation to Black users forming in-group community and discourse (Brock, 2020; Sharma, 2013; Taylor, 2022) and forms of digital activism related to social justice (Bonilla and Rosa, 2015; Jackson et al., 2020; Nacher, 2021).”

“SMPs like Twitter have turned into a space of discourses that mediate societal construction through the public messages and their users (Jackson et al., 2020).”

“However, using a broader organizing hashtag, such as #disability, allows us to examine how minitorized groups use Twitter to build community (Sweet et al., 2020), organize movements (Jackson et al., 2020; Mann, 2018; Parsloe & Holton, 2018), and develop and represent their culture (Brock, 2012).”

“Only recently has research reflected a broader view of stakeholder engagement that acknowledges the power and legitimacy of stakeholders in influencing organizational action (e.g., Garner & Garner, 2011; Jackson et al., 2020).”

“frames, as numerous cases of hashtag activism show (Jackson et al., 2020).”

“While some activists, such as Olga and Sarah, used branding for the feminist collectives they had set up, many talked about themselves as being the brand that their activism promoted.”

“…and counterspaces, or alternative communication spheres that engage in discussions that may be marginalized in mainstream spaces, or online communal discussions more explicitly related to the dismantling of racism (Eschmann, 2020a; Groshek & Han, 2011; Hill, 2018; Jackson et al., 2020).”

“…with disabilities) to amplify their voices and coordinate their actions to bring progressive social change at an unprecedented scale and speed (Jenkins, 2006; Benkler, 2008; Lessig, 2008; Bimber et al., 2012; Karpf, 2012; Oh et al., 2015; Tukekci, 2017; Kapoor et al., 2018; Jackson et al., 2020).”

“…failure has focused on the rise and resilience of certain tech enterprises, such as YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter (e.g. Burgess & Green, 2009; Jackson et al., 2020; Vaidhyanathan, 2018), typically privileging big platforms over the small, surviving digital communities over the dead, and…”

“For instance, social media platforms serve as spaces for public discourse that can be deployed for civic organizing and protest (Jackson et al., 2020).”

“Thus, hashtag activism functions as “repeated resistance” to expand the scope of sharing stories that are otherwise ignored by the traditional media (Jackson et al., 2020).”

“This study extends scholarship on the cultural and racial politics of media, including Lisa Lowe’s (1998) discussion of cultural production and subjectivity and Lori Kido Lopez’s (2016) discussion of Asian American media activism as cultural citizenship; the uses of social media to develop counter narratives and build…”

“…aggregation and summary of complex agenda-setting and prioritisation proxies – as well as the potential to gauge the ‘mirroring’ side of public issue salience (i.e. via strategic communications and communication tactics such as Hashtag usage (see: Fisher 2019; Jackson, Bailey, and Welles 2020).”