Regulation of the Hypothalamic‐Pituitary‐Adrenocortical Stress Response
Open accessAbstract
The hypothalamo‐pituitary‐adrenocortical (HPA) axis is required for stress adaptation. Activation of the HPA axis causes secretion of glucocorticoids, which act on multiple organ systems to redirect energy resources to meet real or anticipated demand. The HPA stress response is driven primarily by neural mechanisms, invoking corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) release from hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN) neurons. Pathways activating CRH release are stressor dependent: reactive responses to homeostatic disruption frequently involve direct noradrenergic or peptidergic drive of PVN neurons by sensory relays, whereas anticipatory responses use oligosynaptic pathways originating in upstream limbic structures. Anticipatory responses are driven largely by disinhibition, mediated by trans‐synaptic silencing of tonic PVN inhibition via GABAergic neurons in the amygdala. Stress responses are inhibited by negative feedback mechanisms, whereby glucocorticoids act to diminish drive (brainstem) and promote transsynaptic inhibition by limbic structures (e.g., hippocampus). Glucocorticoids also act at the PVN to rapidly inhibit CRH neuronal activity via membrane glucocorticoid receptors. Chronic stress‐induced activation of the HPA axis takes many forms (chronic basal hypersecretion, sensitized stress responses, and even adrenal exhaustion), with manifestation dependent upon factors such as stressor chronicity, intensity, frequency, and modality. Neural mechanisms driving chronic stress responses can be distinct from those controlling acute reactions, including recruitment of novel limbic, hypothalamic, and brainstem circuits. Importantly, an individual's response to acute or chronic stress is determined by numerous factors, including genetics, early life experience, environmental conditions, sex, and age. The context in which stressors occur will determine whether an individual's acute or chronic stress responses are adaptive or maladaptive (pathological). © 2016 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 6:603‐621, 2016.
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The HPA axis is the principal neuroendocrine pathway through which stress alters immune responses, mainly via glucocorticoid secretion.
“The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis constitutes the principal neuroendocrine pathway through which stress alters immune responses, mainly via glucocorticoid secretion [4,5].”
From Chronic Stress and Autoimmunity: The Role of HPA Axis and Cortisol Dysregulation (2025) · cites this paper as [4]
The Introduction (page not available) says stress-level glucocorticoids affect inflammation, and the Chronic Stress section describes effects on glucocorticoid-sensitive immune organs. The paper supports an HPA–glucocorticoid route by which stress can affect immunity, but does not establish that it is the principal neuroendocrine pathway for altering immune responses. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredTrauma, attachment insecurity, and stress dysregulation both contribute to and result from abusive dynamics.
“Moreover, integrating psychological and neurobiological perspectives highlights how trauma, attachment insecurity, and stress dysregulation both contribute to and result from abusive dynamics (Herman et al., 2016; González-Acosta et al., 2021).”
From From use to abuse: psychological, neurobiological, and spiritual pathways in relational harm and recovery (2026) · cites this paper as Herman et al., 2016
The Chronic Stress > Modality and Severity passage describes aggressive interactions among rats and altered HPA-axis responses in submissive animals. The Perspective also links early adversity to later stress reactivity. Neither passage establishes that trauma or attachment insecurity both contributes to and results from abusive dynamics, or that stress dysregulation has that bidirectional relationship. No page numbers are supplied in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredProlonged exposure to emotional abuse constitutes a chronic stressor that persistently activates the HPA axis, resulting in dysregulated cortisol secretion.
“Prolonged exposure to emotional abuse constitutes a chronic stressor that persistently activates the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, resulting in dysregulated cortisol secretion–the primary glucocorticoid involved in stress regulation (Herman et al., 2016).”
From From use to abuse: psychological, neurobiological, and spiritual pathways in relational harm and recovery (2026) · cites this paper as Herman et al., 2016
The Chronic Stress section says repeated or prolonged stress can produce long-lasting changes in HPA function and increased cumulative glucocorticoid exposure. It does not specifically identify emotional abuse or establish persistent HPA activation and dysregulated cortisol secretion as its outcome; it says responses vary with the stressor and may habituate. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredNeurobiological embedding of trauma explains why individuals subjected to prolonged emotional abuse often experience enduring psychological distress and face challenges in achieving recovery even after cessation of overt abuse.
“This neurobiological embedding of trauma helps explain why individuals subjected to prolonged emotional abuse often experience enduring psychological distress and face challenges in achieving recovery even after the cessation of overt abuse (Herman et al., 2016; Teicher et al., 2016).”
From From use to abuse: psychological, neurobiological, and spiritual pathways in relational harm and recovery (2026) · cites this paper as Herman et al., 2016
The Chronic Stress section (page not provided) says prolonged stress can produce long-lasting changes in HPA function, and its Neurocircuit Mechanisms section links chronic stress with PTSD and depression. It does not specifically address prolonged emotional abuse in people or establish that psychological distress and difficulty recovering persist after the abuse ends. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredProlonged abuse disrupts neural connectivity, particularly between the prefrontal cortex and limbic structures, leading to inefficient top-down regulation of emotional responses.
“At a systems level, prolonged abuse disrupts neural connectivity, particularly between the prefrontal cortex and limbic structures, leading to inefficient top-down regulation of emotional responses.”
From From use to abuse: psychological, neurobiological, and spiritual pathways in relational harm and recovery (2026) · cites this paper as Herman et al., 2016
The ‘falling’ phase section (page unavailable) describes prefrontal inhibition of stress responses, and the Chronic Stress neurocircuit section describes altered recruitment of prefrontal regions during chronic stress. Neither establishes that prolonged abuse disrupts prefrontal–limbic connectivity or that such disruption causes inefficient top-down regulation of emotions. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Neurobiological adaptations to prolonged abuse reflect experience-dependent plasticity, not merely correlation; repeated exposure to stress and coercion shapes neural architecture over time.
“Importantly, these neurobiological adaptations are not merely correlational but reflect experience-dependent plasticity, wherein repeated exposure to stress and coercion shapes neural architecture over time.”
From From use to abuse: psychological, neurobiological, and spiritual pathways in relational harm and recovery (2026) · cites this paper as Herman et al., 2016
The Chronic Stress section (page unavailable) says prolonged stress causes long-lasting changes in HPA function, and the Neurocircuit Mechanisms section describes differential recruitment of brain circuits under chronic stress. The paper does not establish that prolonged abuse or coercion causes structural changes in neural architecture, or that the specific adaptations invoked by the citing sentence have been shown to be noncorrelational. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCORT can act indirectly in extra-PVN regions expressing MR and GR, such as the hippocampus, to inhibit CORT secretion through a trans-synaptic mechanism.
“CORT can also act indirectly in extra-PVN regions expressing MR and GR, such as the hippocampus, to inhibit the secretion of CORT (Akana, Cascio, Du, Levin, & Dallman, 1986; Dallman et al., 1987; Kovacs, Foldes, & Sawchenko, 2000; Sawchenko, 1987) through a trans-synaptic mechanism (Herman et al., 2016).”
From Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal and hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axes: sex differences in regulation of stress responsivity (2017) · cites this paper as Herman et al., 2016
The PVH is a key HPA axis component and can coordinate stress responses through neuroendocrine mechanisms.
“with the PVH being a key component of the HPA axis that can also coordinate stress responses through neuroendocrine mechanisms52.”
From Central regulation of stress-evoked peripheral immune responses (2023) · cites this paper as [52]
The paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus secretes arginine vasopressin and CRF into the hypophyseal portal system, a capillary bed that connects the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary gland.
“The paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus secretes arginine vasopressin and CRF into the hypophyseal portal system, a capillary bed that connects the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary gland (Herman et al., 2016).”
From The Epigenetics of Anxiety Pathophysiology: A DNA Methylation and Histone Modification Focused Review (2023) · cites this paper as Herman et al., 2016
In the brain, glucocorticoids interact with high-affinity mineralocorticoid receptors and lower affinity glucocorticoid receptors.
“In the brain, glucocorticoids interact with high-affinity mineralocorticoid receptors and lower affinity glucocorticoid receptors (Herman et al., 2016;Smith and Vale, 2006;Tsigos and Chrousos, 2002).”
From The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis (2019) · cites this paper as Herman et al., 2016
Repeated exposure to cycles of violence may result in hypervigilance, emotional numbing, disrupted interpersonal functioning, and difficulties in leaving abusive relationships.
“Over time, repeated exposure to such cycles may result in hypervigilance, emotional numbing, disrupted interpersonal functioning, and difficulties in leaving abusive relationships (Walker, 1979; Herman et al., 2016).”
From From use to abuse: psychological, neurobiological, and spiritual pathways in relational harm and recovery (2026) · cites this paper as Herman et al., 2016
The Chronic Stress > Modality and Severity section discusses repeated social defeat and avoidance in rats or mice, while the Perspective section discusses HPA-axis responses to threats. Neither addresses cycles of violence in abusive relationships or the claimed hypervigilance, emotional numbing, interpersonal difficulties, and difficulty leaving; searches for those terms and domestic abuse found no matching passage. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.75)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe disruptions in neural connectivity and network alterations may contribute to persistent negative self-appraisals, rumination, and heightened sensitivity to perceived interpersonal threats.
“These disruptions may contribute to persistent negative self-appraisals, rumination, and heightened sensitivity to perceived interpersonal threats.”
From From use to abuse: psychological, neurobiological, and spiritual pathways in relational harm and recovery (2026) · cites this paper as Herman et al., 2016
The Chronic Stress section discusses stress-related neurocircuit activity and behavioral changes, and Modality and Severity describes avoidance after social defeat in rodents. Neither passage connects neural disruptions to persistent negative self-appraisals, rumination, or heightened sensitivity to perceived interpersonal threats. Searches for those outcomes and related connectivity terms found no passage addressing that link. (LLM, conf=0.72)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredFunctional neuroimaging studies indicate alterations in the default mode network and salience network in individuals subjected to prolonged abuse.
“Functional neuroimaging studies also indicate alterations in the default mode network and salience network, which are involved in self-referential processing and threat detection, respectively.”
From From use to abuse: psychological, neurobiological, and spiritual pathways in relational harm and recovery (2026) · cites this paper as Herman et al., 2016
The Chronic Stress section mentions human imaging studies linking the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex to depression and PTSD, but it does not report alterations in the default mode or salience networks. Searches for those networks and their proposed roles found no passage addressing the claim; the copy also does not identify a prolonged-abuse population for such a finding. (LLM, conf=0.75)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredFunctional neuroimaging studies indicate increased connectivity between the prefrontal cortex and limbic regions with meditation, supporting emotional regulation, impulse control, and cognitive flexibility.
“Functional neuroimaging studies further indicate increased connectivity between the prefrontal cortex and limbic regions, supporting emotional regulation, impulse control, and cognitive flexibility (Herman et al., 2016).”
From From use to abuse: psychological, neurobiological, and spiritual pathways in relational harm and recovery (2026) · cites this paper as Herman et al., 2016
The Chronic Stress passages discuss prefrontal and limbic stress circuits, and the Neurocircuit Mechanisms section mentions human imaging in relation to depression and PTSD. Searches for meditation-related connectivity and for impulse control and cognitive flexibility found no passage reporting increased functional connectivity with meditation or the claimed outcomes. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredFunctional neuroimaging studies indicate reduced hyperactivity in the default mode network and improved regulation between prefrontal and limbic systems with spiritual practices, facilitating emotional stability and insight.
“Functional neuroimaging studies indicate reduced hyperactivity in the default mode network, which is associated with rumination and self-referential thinking, and improved regulation between prefrontal and limbic systems, facilitating emotional stability and insight (Herman et al., 2016).”
From From use to abuse: psychological, neurobiological, and spiritual pathways in relational harm and recovery (2026) · cites this paper as Herman et al., 2016
The sections on chronic-stress neurocircuits and HPA-axis inhibition discuss prefrontal and limbic regulation of stress responses, but not changes associated with spiritual practices. Searches for the default mode network, rumination, meditation, and spiritual practices found no passage supporting the claimed neuroimaging findings. The indexed passages provide no page numbers. (LLM, conf=0.75)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredDysbiosis leads to heightened stress responses with elevated cortisol and ACTH levels.
“Dysbiosis leads to heightened stress responses with elevated cortisol and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) levels [141,142].”
From Unraveling the Connections: Eating Issues, Microbiome, and Gastrointestinal Symptoms in Autism Spectrum Disorder (2025) · cites this paper as [142]
Brainstem catecholaminergic centers regulate the HPA axis, and noradrenergic neurons are required for normal activation in response to a variety of stressors.
“brainstem catecholaminergic centers play an important role in the regulation of the HPA axis (227) and noradrenergic neurons are required for normal activation in response to a variety of stressors.”
From Signalling cognition: The gut microbiota and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (2023) · cites this paper as [227]
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- Authors
- Herman, J. P., McKlveen, J. M., Ghosal, S., Kopp, B., Wulsin, A., Makinson, R., Scheimann, J., & Myers, B.
- Affiliations
- University of Cincinnati (US)
- Corresponding author
- Herman, James P.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Comprehensive Physiology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2016-03-15
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 603-621
- ISSN
- 2040-4603 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4867107
- OpenAlex
- W2413515606
- Cited by
- 1,819
- References
- 180
- Citations by year
- 2026: 115 · 2025: 220 · 2024: 309 · 2023: 277 · 2022: 238 · 2021: 199 · 2020: 174 · 2019: 124 · 2018: 92 · 2017: 60 · 2016: 11
- Type
- other
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Comprehensive physiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH101729, R01MH049698, R01MH069860)
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (F30NS095578, T32NS007453)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Adrenal Hormones and Disorders
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuropeptides and Animal Physiology
- Keywords
- hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, stress response, corticotropin-releasing factor, paraventricular nucleus, glucocorticoid negative feedback, amygdala, hippocampus, chronic stress, anticipatory stress, noradrenergic activation, GABAergic inhibition, limbic system, stress adaptation
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Glucocorticoids, Homeostasis, Humans, Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System, Pituitary-Adrenal System, Stress, Physiological
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