Functional mapping of sequence learning in normal humans
Abstract
The brain localization of motor sequence learning was studied in normal subjects with positron emission tomography. Subjects performed a serial reaction time (SRT) task by responding to a series of stimuli that occurred at four different spatial positions. The stimulus locations were either determined randomly or according to a 6-element sequence that cycled continuously. The SRT task was performed under two conditions. With attentional interference from a secondary counting task there was no development of awareness of the sequence. Learning-related increases of cerebral blood flow were located in contralateral motor effector areas including motor cortex, supplementary motor area, and putamen, consistent with the hypothesis that nondeclarative motor learning occurs in cerebral areas that control limb movements. Additional cortical sites included the rostral prefrontal cortex and parietal cortex. The SRT learning task was then repeated with a new sequence and no attentional interference. In this condition, 7 of 12 subjects developed awareness of the sequence. Learning-related blood flow increases were present in right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, right premotor cortex, right ventral putamen, and biparieto-occipital cortex. The right dorsolateral prefrontal and parietal areas have been previously implicated in spatial working memory and right prefrontal cortex is also implicated in retrieval tasks of verbal episodic memory. Awareness of the sequence at the end of learning was associated with greater activity in bilateral parietal, superior temporal, and right premotor cortex. Motor learning can take place in different cerebral areas, contingent on the attentional demands of the task.
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Basal ganglia regions are involved in the acquisition of motor sequence knowledge.
“These results provide direct evidence that these regions are involved in the acquisition of motor sequence knowledge”
From The Neural Correlates of Motor Skill Automaticity (2005) · cites this paper as Grafton et al., 1995
Other studies using incidental learning have found increases in putamen but also found decreases in the caudate with skill development.
“Other studies using incidental learning have found increases in putamen but also found decreases in the caudate with skill development (Grafton et al., 1995).”
From The Neural Correlates of Motor Skill Automaticity (2005) · cites this paper as Grafton et al., 1995
There is overwhelming evidence for a role of the dorsolateral striatum in performance of well-learned motor programs.
“there is overwhelming evidence for a role of the DLS in performance of well-learned motor programs [5,7–10,18]”
From Contributions of the striatum to learning, motivation, and performance: an associative account (2012) · cites this paper as [7]
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Sequence learning in pianists and nonpianists: An fMRI study of motor expertise
LANDAU, S. M., & D'ESPOSITO, M. (2006) · Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/cabn.6.3.246 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Are There Age-Related Differences in the Ability to Learn Configural Responses?
Clark, R., Freedberg, M., Hazeltine, E., & Voss, M. W. (2015) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0137260 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
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- Authors
- Grafton, S. T., Hazeltine, E., & Ivry, R.
- Affiliations
- University of Southern California (US)
- University of California, Berkeley (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
- Publisher
- MIT Press - Journals
- Published
- 1995
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 497-510
- ISSN
- 0898-929X (ISSN-L)
- 1530-8898
- OpenAlex
- W2116899198
- Cited by
- 720
- References
- 84
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 32 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 27 · 2013: 17 · 2012: 19
- FWCI
- 23.59
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Motor Control and Adaptation
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- motor sequence learning, serial reaction time task, cerebral blood flow, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, premotor cortex, parietal cortex, putamen, supplementary motor area, attentional interference, spatial working memory, episodic memory retrieval
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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