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Towards a theory of ecosystems
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Research Summary: The recent surge of interest in “ecosystems” in strategy research and practice has mainly focused on what ecosystems are and how they operate. We complement this literature by considering when and why ecosystems emerge, and what makes them distinct from other governance forms. We argue that modularity enables ecosystem emergence as it allows a set of distinct yet interdependent organizations to coordinate without full hierarchical fiat. We show how ecosystems address multilateral dependences based on various types of complementarities—supermodular or unique, unidirectional or bidirectional—which determine the ecosystem's value‐add. We argue that at the core of ecosystems lie nongeneric complementarities, and the creation of sets of roles that face similar rules. We conclude with implications for mainstream strategy and suggestions for future research. Managerial Summary: We consider what makes ecosystems different from other business constellations, including markets, alliances, or hierarchically managed supply chains. Ecosystems, we posit, are interacting organizations, enabled by modularity, not hierarchically managed, bound together by the nonredeployability of their collective investment elsewhere. Ecosystems add value as they allow managers to coordinate their multilateral dependence through sets of roles that face similar rules, thus obviating the need to enter into customized contractual agreements with each partner. We explain how different types of complementarities (unique or supermodular, generic or specific, uni‐ or bi‐directional) shape ecosystems and offer a “theory of ecosystems” that can explain what they are, when they emerge, and why alignment occurs. Finally, we outline the critical factors affecting ecosystem emergence, evolution, and success—or failure.
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“A significant fraction of these multihoming investments tends to be co-specialized, such that they cannot be easily redeployed or re-used on other platforms (Jacobides et al. 2018), increasing the risk of holdup and the costs of multihoming to a distant platform.”
From Smart Timing for Smart Products? Complementor Multihoming in Nascent Platform Markets (2026) · cites this paper as Jacobides et al. 2018
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“Here the focal platform actor requires specific capabilities to form and orchestrate the surrounding ecosystem (Helfat & Raubitschek, 2018), enforces governance principles and fosters generativity, allowing the complementors to undertake discrete actions to contribute to the platforms' value proposition (Adner, 2017;Jacobides et al., 2018;Teece, 2018).”
From Digital platform ecosystems in flux: From proprietary digital platforms to wide-spanning ecosystems (2023) · cites this paper as Jacobides et al., 2018
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“In doing so, platform architecture affords ecosystems sufficient flexibility without involving overt managerial fiat or explicit coordination from an ecosystem leader (Jacobides et al., 2018).”
BackgroundInfluentialEcosystem leadership as a dynamic capability
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Metadata
- Authors
- Jacobides, M. G., Cennamo, C., & Gawer, A.
- Affiliations
- London Business School (GB)
- Bocconi University (IT)
- University of Surrey (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Jacobides, Michael G.
- Venue
- Strategic Management Journal
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2018-06-05
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 2255-2276
- ISSN
- 0143-2095 (ISSN-L)
- 1097-0266
- OpenAlex
- W2799670133
- Cited by
- 3,724
- References
- 102
- Citations by year
- 2026: 790 · 2025: 565 · 2024: 520 · 2023: 499 · 2022: 483 · 2021: 404 · 2020: 297 · 2019: 129 · 2018: 30
- FWCI
- 358.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Strategic Management Journal (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- SSRN Electronic Journal (publishedVersion)
- London Business School Research Online (London Business School) (acceptedVersion)
- Archivio istituzionale della Ricerca - Bocconi (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Surrey Research Insight Open Access (The University of Surrey) (submittedVersion)
- Spiral (Imperial College London) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- London Business School
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Strategy and Management › Digital Platforms and Economics
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Strategy and Management › Business Strategy and Innovation
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Strategy and Management › Innovation and Knowledge Management
- Keywords
- business ecosystems, ecosystem emergence, modularity, complementarity, inter-organizational coordination, governance forms
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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