The virtual reality head-mounted display Oculus Rift induces motion sickness and is sexist in its effects
Abstract
Anecdotal reports suggest that motion sickness may occur among users of contemporary, consumer-oriented head-mounted display systems and that women may be at greater risk. We evaluated the nauseogenic properties of one such system, the Oculus Rift. The head-mounted unit included motion sensors that were sensitive to users' head movements, such that head movements could be used as control inputs to the device. In two experiments, seated participants played one of two virtual reality games for up to 15 min. In Experiment 1, 22% of participants reported motion sickness, and the difference in incidence between men and women was not significant. In Experiment 2, motion sickness was reported by 56% of participants, and incidence among women (77.78%) was significantly greater than among men (33.33%). Before participants were exposed to the head-mounted display system, we recorded their standing body sway during the performance of simple visual tasks. In both experiments, patterns of pre-exposure body sway differed between participants who (later) reported motion sickness and those who did not. In Experiment 2, sex differences in susceptibility to motion sickness were preceded by sex differences in body sway. These postural effects confirm a prediction of the postural instability theory of motion sickness. The results indicate that users of contemporary head-mounted display systems are at significant risk of motion sickness and that in relation to motion sickness these systems may be sexist in their effects.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Cyber sickness occurs for some users of HMDs.
“Cyber sickness is also a factor known to occur for some users of HMDs (Munafo et al. 2017)”
From The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality (2021) · cites this paper as Munafo et al. 2017
Women are more susceptible to cyber sickness than men.
“Munafo et al. (2017) found indications of a gender difference in the occurrence of cyber sickness, with women being more susceptible than men.”
From The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality (2021) · cites this paper as Munafo et al. 2017
Cites
(1992) · Applied Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/0003-6870(92)90318-p · Cited by 5,774 · see citing works
Simulator Sickness Questionnaire: An Enhanced Method for Quantifying Simulator Sickness
Kennedy, R. S., Lane, N. E., Berbaum, K. S., & Lilienthal, M. G. (1993) · The International Journal of Aviation Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15327108ijap0303_3 · Cited by 5,457 · see citing works
Voyer, D., Voyer, S., & Bryden, M. P. (1995) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.117.2.250 · Cited by 2,868 · see citing works
Introduction to Multifractal Detrended Fluctuation Analysis in Matlab
Ihlen, E. A. F. (2012) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2012.00141 · Cited by 915 · see citing works
An ecological Theory of Motion Sickness and Postural Instability
Riccio, G. E., & Stoffregen, T. A. (1991) · Ecological Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15326969eco0303_2 · Cited by 761 · see citing works
Self-citationStabilometric parameters are affected by anthropometry and foot placement
Chiari, L., Rocchi, L., & Cappello, A. (2002) · Clinical Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/s0268-0033(02)00107-9 · Cited by 574 · see citing works
Postural Balance in a Random Sample of 7,979 Subjects Aged 30 Years and Over
Era, P. A., Sainio, P., Koskinen, S., Haavisto, P., Vaara, M., & Aromaa, A. (2006) · Gerontology · doi:10.1159/000093652 · Cited by 422 · see citing works
Reliability of COP-based postural sway measures and age-related differences
Lin, D., Seol, H., Nussbaum, M. A., & Madigan, M. L. (2008) · Gait & Posture · doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2008.01.005 · Cited by 417 · see citing works
Motion sickness susceptibility
Golding, J. F. (2006) · Autonomic Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.autneu.2006.07.019 · Cited by 399 · see citing works
Research in visually induced motion sickness
Kennedy, R. S., Drexler, J., & Kennedy, R. S. (2010) · Applied Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2009.11.006 · Cited by 340 · see citing works
Postural instability precedes motion sickness
Stoffregen, T. A., & Smart, L. J. (1998) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/s0361-9230(98)00102-6 · Cited by 333 · see citing works
Self-citationFlow structure versus retinal location in the optical control of stance.
Stoffregen, T. A. (1985) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.11.5.554 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Self-citationModulating postural control to facilitate visual performance
Stoffregen, T. A., Pagulayan, R. J., Bardy, B. G., & Hettinger, L. J. (2000) · Human Movement Science · doi:10.1016/s0167-9457(00)00009-9 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Self-citationStanney, K. M., & Salvendy, G. (1998) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1207/s15327590ijhc1002_3 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
Crampton, G. H. (1990) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 272 · see citing works
Specificity of postural sway to the demands of a precision task
Balasubramaniam, R., Riley, M. A., & Turvey, M. T. (2000) · Gait & Posture · doi:10.1016/s0966-6362(99)00051-x · Cited by 253 · see citing works
Interaction-dominant dynamics in human cognition: Beyond 1/ƒα fluctuation.
Ihlen, E. A. F., & Vereijken, B. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0019098 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Motion Sickness, Console Video Games, and Head-Mounted Displays
Merhi, O., Faugloire, E., Flanagan, M. B., & Stoffregen, T. A. (2007) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1518/001872007x230262 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Self-citationWhy is the driver rarely motion sick? The role of controllability in motion sickness
ROLNICK, A., & LUBOW, R. E. (1991) · Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/00140139108964831 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
The frequency of occurrence and severity of side-effects of immersion virtual reality.
Regan, E. C., & Price, K. R. (1994) · PubMed · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Draper, M. H., Viirre, E., Furness, T. A., & Gawron, V. J. (2001) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1518/001872001775992552 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Motion sickness in public road transport: passenger behaviour and susceptibility
Turner, M. (1999) · Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/001401399185586 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Postural Instability and Motion Sickness in a Fixed-Base Flight Simulator
Stoffregen, T. A., Hettinger, L. J., Haas, M., Roe, M. M., & Smart, L. J. (2000) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1518/001872000779698097 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Self-citationLackner, J. R., & DiZio, P. (2006) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-006-0697-y · Cited by 163 · see citing works
A survey of the occurrence of motion sickness amongst passengers at sea.
Lawther, A., & Griffin, M. J. (1988) · PubMed · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Kelty‐Stephen, D. G., Palatinus, K., Saltzman, E. L., & Dixon, J. A. (2013) · Ecological Psychology · doi:10.1080/10407413.2013.753804 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
The motion of a ship at sea and the consequent motion sickness amongst passengers
LAWTHER, A., & GRIFFIN, M. J. (1986) · Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/00140138608968289 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Motion Sickness and Postural Sway in Console Video Games
Stoffregen, T. A., Faugloire, E., Yoshida, K., Flanagan, M. B., & Merhi, O. (2008) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1518/001872008x250755 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Self-citationEffects of Motion at Sea on Crew Performance: A Survey
Stevens, S. C., & Parsons, M. G. (2002) · Marine Technology and SNAME News · doi:10.5957/mt1.2002.39.1.29 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Control of a virtual vehicle influences postural activity and motion sickness.
Dong, X., Yoshida, K., & Stoffregen, T. A. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/a0024097 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Self-citationTurner, M., & Griffin, M. J. (1999) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1348/000712699161594 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Stoffregen, T. A., Chen, F., Varlet, M., Alcantara, C., & Bardy, B. G. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0066949 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Self-citationMotion sickness preceded by unstable displacements of the center of pressure
Bonnet, C. T., Faugloire, E., Riley, M. A., Bardy, B. G., & Stoffregen, T. A. (2006) · Human Movement Science · doi:10.1016/j.humov.2006.03.001 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Self-citationPostural activity and motion sickness during video game play in children and adults
Chang, C.-H., Pan, W.-W., Tseng, L.-Y., & Stoffregen, T. A. (2011) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-011-2993-4 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Self-citationStance Width Influences Postural Stability and Motion Sickness
Stoffregen, T. A., Yoshida, K., Villard, S., Scibora, L., & Bardy, B. G. (2010) · Ecological Psychology · doi:10.1080/10407413.2010.496645 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Self-citationTriggers of Motion Sickness in Migraine Sufferers
Drummond, P. D. (2005) · Headache The Journal of Head and Face Pain · doi:10.1111/j.1526-4610.2005.05132.x · Cited by 87 · see citing works
User experience while viewing stereoscopic 3D television
Read, J. C. A., & Bohr, I. (2014) · Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/00140139.2014.914581 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Will autonomous vehicles make us sick?
Diels, C. (2014) · Taylor & Francis eBooks · doi:10.1201/b16742-56 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Koslucher, F. C., Haaland, E., & Stoffregen, T. A. (2015) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-015-4462-y · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Self-citationMotion control, motion sickness, and the postural dynamics of mobile devices
Stoffregen, T. A., Chen, Y.-C., & Koslucher, F. C. (2014) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-014-3859-3 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Self-citationSex Differences in the Incidence of Motion Sickness Induced by Linear Visual Oscillation
Koslucher, F. C., Haaland, E., Malsch, A., Webeler, J., & Stoffregen, T. A. (2015) · Aerospace Medicine and Human Performance · doi:10.3357/amhp.4243.2015 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Self-citationGender and race as determinants of nausea induced by circular vection
Klosterhalfen, S., Pan, F., Kellermann, S., & Enck, P. (2006) · Gender Medicine · doi:10.1016/s1550-8579(06)80211-1 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Video game preferences and their relation to career interests
Giammarco, E. A., Schneider, T. J., Carswell, J. J., & Knipe, W. S. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.09.036 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Postural sway in men and women during nauseogenic motion of the illuminated environment
Koslucher, F. C., Munafo, J., & Stoffregen, T. A. (2016) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-016-4675-8 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Self-citationThe influence of center-of-mass movements on the variation in the structure of human postural sway
Ihlen, E. A. F., Skjæret-Maroni, N., & Vereijken, B. (2012) · Journal of Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2012.10.016 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Sex, sexual orientation and sex hormones influence human cognitive function
Kimura, D. (1997) · Biomedical Reviews · doi:10.14748/bmr.v7.160 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Munafo, J., Curry, C., Wade, M. G., et al. (2016) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-016-4676-7 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-citationVisual 3D motion acuity predicts discomfort in 3D stereoscopic environments
Allen, B., Hanley, T., Rokers, B., & Green, C. S. (2016) · Entertainment Computing · doi:10.1016/j.entcom.2016.01.001 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Contemporary Ergonomics and Human Factors 2013
Anderson, M. (2013) · Taylor & Francis eBooks · doi:10.1201/b13826 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Control of a Virtual Avatar Influences Postural Activity and Motion Sickness
Chen, Y., Dong, X., Chen, F., & Stoffregen, T. A. (2012) · Ecological Psychology · doi:10.1080/10407413.2012.726181 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationBody load and the postural precursors of motion sickness
Koslucher, F. C., Haaland, E., & Stoffregen, T. A. (2013) · Gait & Posture · doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2013.09.016 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationPostural balance in a random sample of 7979 aged 30 years and older
Era, P. A., Sainio, P., Koskinen, S., et al. (2006) · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Active video game head movement inputs
McConville, K. M. V., & Milosevic, M. (2013) · Personal and Ubiquitous Computing · doi:10.1007/s00779-013-0662-2 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Makransky, G., & Petersen, G. B. (2021) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-020-09586-2 · Cited by 1,438 · see citing works
The state of immersive technology research: A literature analysis
Suh, A., & Prophet, J. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.04.019 · Cited by 841 · see citing works
Zeng, N., Pope, Z., Lee, J., & Gao, Z. (2018) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm7030042 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
On the Usage of the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire for Virtual Reality Research
Bimberg, P., Weissker, T., & Kulik, A. (2020) · 2020 IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces Abstracts and Workshops (VRW) · doi:10.1109/vrw50115.2020.00098 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
“The Word Real Is No Longer Real”: Deepfakes, Gender, and the Challenges of AI-Altered Video
Wagner, T. L., & Blewer, A. (2019) · Open Information Science · doi:10.1515/opis-2019-0003 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Kwan, R. Y. C., Liu, J. Y. W., Fong, K. N. K., Qin, J., Leung, P. K.-Y., Sin, O. S. K., Hon, P. Y., Suen, L. W., Tse, M.-K., & Lai, C. K. (2021) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/28400 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Lee, S. H., Jung, H., Yun, S. J., Oh, B., & Seo, H. G. (2020) · PM&R · doi:10.1002/pmrj.12206 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
The simulator sickness questionnaire, and the erroneous zero baseline assumption
Brown, P., Spronck, P., & Powell, W. (2022) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2022.945800 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Huang, H., Hwang, G.-J., & Jong, M. S.-Y. (2022) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104593 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Brown, T., Nauman Vogel, E., Adler, S., Bohon, C., Bullock, K., Nameth, K., Riva, G., Safer, D. L., & Runfola, C. D. (2020) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/16386 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Pieterse, A. D., Hierck, B. P., de Jong, P. G. M., Ginn, T. F., Hamoen, E. C., & Reinders, M. E. J. (2023) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-022-00731-6 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
- Authors
- Munafo, J., Diedrick, M., & Stoffregen, T. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Minnesota (US)
- Corresponding author
- Stoffregen, Thomas A.
- Venue
- Experimental Brain Research
- Published
- 2016-12-03
- Volume
- 235
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 889-901
- ISSN
- 0014-4819 (ISSN-L)
- 1432-1106
- OpenAlex
- W2557593045
- Cited by
- 566
- References
- 53
- Citations by year
- 2026: 33 · 2025: 97 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 73 · 2021: 85 · 2020: 63 · 2019: 52 · 2018: 34 · 2017: 9
- FWCI
- 49.35
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Experimental Brain Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Vestibular and auditory disorders
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Media Technology › Advanced Optical Imaging Technologies
- Keywords
- motion sickness, virtual reality, head-mounted displays, Oculus Rift, sex differences, postural sway, postural control, virtual reality games, consumer technology
- MeSH terms
- Postural Balance, Female, Humans, Male, Motion Perception, Motion Sickness, Posture, Surveys and Questionnaires, Severity of Illness Index, Sex Characteristics, User-Computer Interface, Video Games, Head Movements, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
