CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 88Autism Spectrum Disorder ResearchChild and Animal Learning DevelopmentChild Nutrition and Feeding Issues

Childhood Executive Function Predicts Later Autistic Features and Adaptive Behavior in Young Autistic People: a 12-Year Prospective Study

Open access
Kenny, Lorcan, Cribb, Serena J., Pellicano, Elizabeth·2019·Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology
DOI 10.1007/s10802-018-0493-8
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

Longitudinal studies of autistic people show that the behavioral features of autism generally endure into adulthood. Yet the prognostic indicators remain far from certain, especially for cognitively able individuals. Here, we test the predictive power of specific cognitive skills, namely theory of mind and executive function, measured in childhood, on young people's autistic features and adaptive behavior 12 years later. Twenty-eight young autistic people (2 female) were seen twice within the space of 12 years. At Time 1 (M = 5 years; 7 months, SD = 11 months), participants were assessed on components of executive function (planning, inhibition and cognitive flexibility) and theory of mind (false-belief understanding). At Time 2, 12 years later (M = 17 years 10 months, SD = 1 year; 2 months), we measured participants' autistic features and adaptive behavior. Only Time 1 executive function skills predicted significant variance in autistic adolescents' autistic features, over and above variance attributable to early age, intellectual ability and theory of mind skills. Furthermore, early EF skills, in addition to early verbal ability and nonverbal ability, predicted significant variance in young people's adaptive behavior at the 12-year follow-up. These long-term longitudinal findings clearly demonstrate that executive function measured in early childhood has prognostic significance in a sample of young autistic people approaching emerging adulthood and underscore their importance as a key target for early intervention and support.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In a 12-year prospective follow-up of 28 cognitively able autistic people, childhood executive function (EF) but not theory of mind (ToM) uniquely predicted later autistic features and adaptive behavior after accounting for age and IQ. Early EF therefore showed prognostic significance as participants approached emerging adulthood.

Key findings

  • Time 1 EF significantly predicted Time 2 autistic features, indexed by ADOS-2 calibrated severity scores, over and above Time 1 age, verbal ability, nonverbal ability, and ToM: \(B = -1.114\), \(p = 0.003\), \(\Delta R^2 = 0.38\); Time 1 ToM did not (\(B = -0.344\), \(p = 0.12\)).
  • Time 1 EF also independently predicted Time 2 adaptive behavior, indexed by Vineland-2 Adaptive Behavior Composite scores: \(B = 0.665\), \(p = 0.047\), \(\Delta R^2 = 0.118\); Time 1 ToM did not (\(B = 0.027\), \(p = 0.89\)).
  • In correlational analyses, better Time 1 ToM and EF were significantly related to fewer Time 2 autistic features, and these relationships remained significant after adjusting for Time 1 age, verbal ability, and nonverbal ability.
  • The EF–Vineland-2 partial correlation became marginally non-significant after adjusting for Time 1 age, verbal ability, and nonverbal ability, \(r(19) = 0.41\), \(p = 0.06\), which the authors attribute likely to small sample size.

Methods

  • Prospective longitudinal design: 28 young autistic people (26 boys, 2 girls) were seen at Time 1 in childhood (\(M = 5\) years 7 months, \(SD = 10\) months) and again about 12 years later at Time 2 (\(M = 17\) years 7 months, \(SD = 1\) year 2 months).
  • At Time 1, participants were assessed on verbal ability (PPVT-III), nonverbal ability (Leiter-R), ToM (false-belief tasks), and EF (Mazes, Tower of London, Luria’s hand-game, teddy-bear set-shifting). At Time 2, outcomes were autistic features (ADOS-2 calibrated severity scores) and adaptive behavior (Vineland-2).
  • Analyses included correlations and hierarchical regressions: Time 1 age, verbal ability, and nonverbal ability were entered first, followed stepwise by Time 1 ToM and EF composites.

Limitations

  • The paper states the sample was small, limiting power and preventing examination of specific EF components (e.g., cognitive flexibility) or gender effects; it also calls for replication with larger samples.
  • The paper states that specific cognitive skills were not measured at Time 2, so it is unclear whether executive difficulties persisted into emerging adulthood on behavioral EF tasks.
  • The paper notes possible task-sensitivity issues, especially the narrow focus on ToM as false-belief understanding, and that IQ score reduction from Time 1 to Time 2 may reflect a change in instruments rather than a real change. Evident from the text: the sample is predominantly male and mostly White, and four participants had only parent-report data at Time 2.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1007/s10802-018-0493-8

Cites

77 of 77 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

0 of 61 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Time 1 theory of mind was not significantly correlated with Time 2 adaptive behavior (r = .20, ns).

    “Theory of mind | -0.52** (-0.53**) 0.20 (0.18)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Only Time 1 executive function composite scores made an independent contribution to the prediction of young people's Time 2 Vineland-2 scores (B = 0.665, p = 0.047), explaining an additional 12% of the variance.

    “When Time 1 ToM and EF were entered stepwise into the second block, only Time 1 EF composite scores made an independent contribution to the prediction of young people's Time 2 Vineland-2 scores (B = 0.665, p = 0.047), explaining an additional 12% of the variance, F(1,23) = 4.42, p = 0.047, ΔR 2 = 0.118”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Time 1 executive function was significantly positively correlated with Time 2 adaptive behavior (r = .34, p < .05).

    “Executive function -0.50** (-0.62**) .34* (0.41 c )”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Time 1 theory of mind composite scores did not significantly predict Time 2 Vineland-2 scores (B = 0.027, p = 0.89).

    “(Time 1 ToM composite scores were not significant: B = 0.027, p = 0.89).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingreasoning

    Executive function is a stronger predictor of autistic children's later behavioral outcomes than theory of mind.

    “It is perhaps not surprising that EF is a stronger predictor of autistic children's later behavioral outcomes given that, unlike ToM, it is a domain-general function”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 24
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 24

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Young people spoke of difficulties making decisions, switching flexibly, and problems with planning and future-oriented thinking.

    “Young people spoke of difficulties Bmaking decisions^, switching flexibly from one thing to the next (Blike when there's a change of plan, I just get stressed out and just get frustrated^) and problems with planning and future-oriented thinking: BI've never thought of [the future] because I always think of the present and maybe one or two days later^.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    This study showed that executive function, but not theory of mind, was a significant prognostic indicator in a group of young autistic people approaching emerging adulthood.

    “this study showed that EFbut not ToMwas a significant prognostic indicator in a group of young autistic people approaching emerging adulthood.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Time 1 executive function scores significantly improved model fit and explained a further 38% of the variance in participants' autistic features (B = -1.114, p = 0.003).

    “Time 1 EF scores significantly improved model fit (B = -1.114,p = 0.003) and explained a further 38% of the variance in participants' autistic features, F(1,19) = 11.69,p = 0.003, ΔR 2 = 0.38”
    • Also stated in: § Regression Analyses · hedged
      “The negative beta value suggests that better EF skills at Time 1 were significantly predictive of fewer autistic features 12 years later (Table 3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Better verbal ability, nonverbal ability and executive function early in development were predictive of higher Vineland-2 scores 12 years later.

    “Better verbal ability, nonverbal ability and EF early in development were predictive of higher Vineland-2 scores 12 years later.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Parents described their children's difficulties with forward thinking, planning, organization, and keeping track of time, which they felt negatively impacted everyday tasks and transition to adulthood.

    “with Bforward thinking, planning, orga-nization^and Bkeeping track of time^, all of which they felt to have a negative impact on their ability to do everyday tasks and, ultimately, on their transition to adulthood.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Individual differences in Time 1 theory of mind and executive function were significantly related to Time 2 ADOS-2 severity scores, and these relationships remained significant after accounting for Time 1 age, verbal ability and non-verbal ability.

    “Individual differences in Time 1 ToM and EF were significantly related to Time 2 ADOS-2 severity scoresand these relationships remained significant once Time 1 age, verbal ability and non-verbal ability were accounted for in partial correlations.”
    • Also stated in: § Correlational Analyses · plain
      “Young people with better early ToM and EF showed fewer autistic features at the 12years follow-up.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Theory of mind and executive function are linked in one particular direction, such that children's emerging executive function plays a critical role in shaping the development of theory of mind, but not vice versa.

    “Yet both theoretical and longitudinal empirical work in typical (Hughes and Ensor 2007) and autistic (Pellicano 2007;2010;Russell 1996, Russell 1997) children have demonstrated that ToM and EF themselves are linkedand in one particular direction, such that children's emerging EF plays a critical role in shaping the development of ToM (but not vice versa).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Hughes and Ensor 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Pellicano 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Russell 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Although a minority of autistic adults achieve very good or very positive outcomes, autistic adults are far less likely than nonautistic counterparts to have a job, live independently, or have extensive social networks.

    “Although a minority achieve 'very good' (Howlin et al. 2004) or 'very positive' (Anderson et al. 2014; see also Fein et al. 2013) outcomes, autistic adults are far less likely than their nonautistic counterparts to have a job, live independently or to have extensive social networks”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Howlin et al. 2004 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Anderson et al. 2014 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Fein et al. 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Individual differences in theory of mind predict children's social interaction and communication difficulties and can reliably discriminate between levels of autism severity, even when adjusted for verbal ability and age.

    “For example, individual differences in ToM have been shown to predict children's social interaction and communication difficulties (Jones et al. 2018;Tager-Flusberg 2003) and can reliably discriminate between levels of autism severity (Hoogenhout and Malcolm-Smith 2016), even when adjusted for the effects of verbal ability and age.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Jones et al. 2018

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Tager-Flusberg 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Hoogenhout and Malcolm-Smith 2016

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Early executive skills, but not theory of mind, were a significant predictor of autistic features 3 years later, over and above variation in age, verbal ability, nonverbal ability and early theory of mind skills.

    “Early executive skillsbut not ToMwere a significant predictor of autistic features 3 years later, over and above variation in age, verbal ability, nonverbal ability and early ToM skills, suggesting that individual differences in early EF play a key role in shaping autistic children's later behaviorsat least over a short-term period.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pellicano 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Variation in executive function relates to autistic features, including both restrictive repetitive behaviors and social communication difficulties, as well as everyday adaptive behavior.

    “Similarly, variation in EF has been consistently shown to relate to autistic features, including both restrictive, repetitive behaviors (Kenworthy et al. 2009;Lopez et al. 2005;South et al. 2007;Turner 1997) and social communication difficulties (McEvoy et al. 1993; though see Jones et al. 2018, andTager-Flusberg 2003), as well as everyday adaptive behavior (Gilotty et al. 2002;Pugliese et al. 201”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Kenworthy et al. 2009 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Gilotty et al. 2002 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Pugliese et al. 2016 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Atypicalities in executive function were linked in particular to the presence of restricted and repetitive behaviors in autism and problems managing everyday routines.

    “An alternative, rival candidate is atypicalities in 'executive function' (EF) or difficulties with those skills necessary for flexible, goal-oriented behavior (including planning, cognitive flexibility, inhibition), which were linked in particular to the presence of restricted and repetitive behaviors in autism and problems managing everyday routines (Damasio and Maurer 1978;Ozonoff et al. 1991;”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Damasio and Maurer 1978

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Ozonoff et al. 1991 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Turner 1997

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Many autistic adults have difficulties with their physical, emotional and material wellbeing, which can require ongoing support.

    “Many also have difficulties with their physical, emotional and material wellbeing, which can require ongoing support (Billstedt et al. 2011;Bishop-Fitzpatrick et al. 2016;Renty and Roeyers 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Billstedt et al. 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Bishop-Fitzpatrick et al. 2016 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Renty and Roeyers 2006 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Central coherence (local processing) skills were not predictive of other cognitive skills or of autistic features at the 3-year follow-up.

    “such skills were not predictive of other cognitive skills (Pellicano 2010) or autistic features (Pellicano 2013) at the 3-year follow-up.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Pellicano 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Pellicano 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Atypicalities in theory of mind were once proposed to explain certain behavioral features of autism, especially difficulties with social interaction and communication.

    “One such candidate is atypicalities in 'theory of mind' (ToM) or difficulties in the ability to infer the mental states of others, which was once proposed to explain certain behavioral features of autism, especially difficulties with social interaction and communication (Baron-Cohen 2000; see Tager-Flusberg 2007, for review).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Baron-Cohen 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Tager-Flusberg 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation

    Specific aspects of cognition may be more proximal to a child's behavior than general sources of individual and developmental differences.

    “Researchers have long sought to identify specific aspects of cognition, which might be more proximal to the child's behavior than general sources of individual and developmental differences (Frith et al. 1991) and therefore might be better placed to explain, at least in part, the variation in autistic individuals' behavioral outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Frith et al. 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Autistic features, particularly children's social communication difficulties, are predicted by both early theory of mind and early executive function performance over a one-year period.

    “Notwithstanding, these few studies have shown that autistic features, particularly children's social communication difficulties, are predicted by both early ToM (Tager-Flusberg 2003) and early EF performance (Griffith et al. 1999) over a one-year period.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Tager-Flusberg 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Griffith et al. 1999 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Longitudinal studies of autistic people show that the behavioral features of autism generally endure into adulthood.

    “Longitudinal studies of autistic people show that the behavioral features of autism generally endure into adulthood.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Childhood language ability, especially the acquisition of language before age 5, and general intellectual ability are significant predictors of autistic features and adaptive behavior in autistic people.

    “These studies have repeatedly shown that childhood language ability, especially the acquisition of language before age 5 (Eaves and Ho 2008;Gotham et al. 2012;Lotter 1974;Magiati et al. 2014;Pickles et al. 2014;Szatmari et al. 2003;Venter et al. 1992) and general intellectual ability (Bal et al. 2015;Gillberg and Steffenburg 1987;Howlin et al. 2013) are significant predictors of autistic features”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Eaves and Ho 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Gotham et al. 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Howlin et al. 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The preschool period is a time when the prefrontal cortex shows a boost in development and may have the greatest chance of influencing a range of important, concurrent skills, including school readiness, play, theory of mind, as well as later behavior.

    “a time when the pre-frontal cortex shows a boost in development (Diamond 2013) and may have the greatest chance of influencing a range of important, concurrent skills, including school readiness (Blair and Razza 2007;Pellicano et al. 2017), play (Faja et al. 2016) and theory of mind (Hughes 1998;Pellicano 2010), as well as later behavior.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Diamond 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Blair and Razza 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Pellicano et al. 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Scores on tasks tapping each cognitive domain were significantly interrelated, indicating good convergent validity for each construct.

    “As expected, scores on tasks tapping each cognitive domain were significantly interrelated, indicating good convergent validity for each construct.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Children who show the weakest executive function skills through social disadvantage appear to benefit the most from these interventions.

    “those children who show the weakest EF skills (through social disadvantage) appear to benefit the most from these interventions (Blair and Raver 2014;Raver et al. 2012)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Blair and Raver 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Raver et al. 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The study did not measure specific cognitive skills at the 12-year follow-up because the tasks would be vastly different from those used in childhood and the sample size was insufficient to account for measurement error.

    “We did not measure specific cognitive skills at the 12-years follow-up because the tasks used would be vastly different from those used in childhood and the sample size (over which we had little control) was insufficient to account for such measurement error.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A randomized controlled trial of the Unstuck and On Target program against a social skills intervention demonstrated that 7- to 11-year-old autistic children in both interventions improved, especially in social skills, but there were greater gains for those who received Unstuck and On Target, including better executive function skills (problem-solving, flexibility, planning) and improved classroom

    “A randomized controlled trial that tested the effectiveness of this program against a social skills intervention demonstrated that, while 7-to 11-year-old autistic children in both interventions improved, especially with regard to social skills, there were greater gains for those children who received the Unstuck and On Target program, including better EF skills (problem-solving, flexibility, and”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kenworthy et al.'s (2014) source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Oswald et al. 2018

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Ethical approval for the follow-up study was granted by the Human Research Ethics Office at the University of Western Australia.

    “Ethical approval for this follow-up study was granted by the Human Research Ethics Office at the University of Western Australia (RA/4/1/6992).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Early executive function difficulties may persist during development and are in turn associated with poor behavioral outcomes.

    “Given that EF is closely associated with the pre-frontal cortex (Alvarez and Emory 2006), it is possible that early EF difficulties persist during development, which are in turn associated with poor behavioral outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Alvarez and Emory 2006 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Kenworthy et al.'s Unstuck and On Target program targets autistic executive function difficulties through a cognitive behavioral program that teaches autistic school-age children self-regulatory executive function scripts and how to deploy these scripts across different contexts to guide flexible, goal-directed behavior.

    “Kenworthy et al.'s (2014) Unstuck and On Target program targets autistic EF difficulties through a cognitive behavioral program that teaches autistic school-age children self-regulatory EF scripts (e.g., Bstuck on a detail^, Bbig picture^, Bflexible thinking^) and how to deploy these scripts across different contexts in order to guide flexible, goal-directed behavior.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kenworthy et al.'s (2014) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    Executive function difficulties, especially during sensitive periods early in development, may have a sustained effect on behavior that persists beyond the ability to measure the cognitive atypicality itself.

    “Alternatively, it is possible that EF difficulties, especially during sensitive periods early in development, have a sustained effect on behavior that persists beyond our ability to measure the cognitive atypicality itself.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Early individual differences in executive function predict developmental changes in children's theory-of-mind false-belief understanding during the toddler and preschool periods in typical children, and in this sample of autistic children.

    “Early individual differences in EF have been shown to predict developmental changes in children's ToMfalse-belief understandingduring the toddler (Carlson et al. 2004;Hughes and Ensor 2007) and preschool (Carlson et al. 2004;Hughes 1998) periods in typical children, and even in this sample of autistic children (Pellicano 2010)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Carlson et al. 2004 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Hughes and Ensor 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Pellicano 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    One of the first attempts to train executive function with autistic school-age children failed to show gains in performance on executive tasks following such training.

    “One of the first attempts to 'train' EF with autistic school-age children failed to show gains in performance on executive tasks following such training (Fisher and Happé 2005).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fisher and Happé 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These interventions are particularly relevant for autistic children, who often show poorer executive function skills.

    “making these interventions particularly relevant for autistic children who often show poorer EF skills.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Reliability estimates for the theory of mind composite were high (Cronbach's alpha = 0.86).

    “Reliability estimates were high (Cronbach's alpha = 0.86).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    The current findings support the findings from existing longitudinal studies, including an earlier follow-up of this same sample.

    “that the current findings support the findings from existing longitudinal studies, including an earlier follow-up of this same sample”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Executive function is a domain-general function that facilitates many other cognitive processes.

    “unlike ToM, it is a domain-general function, which facilitates many other cognitive processes (Burgess et al. 2006;Denckla 1996;Diamond 2013;Miller and Cohen 2001;Royall et al. 2002).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Burgess et al. 2006 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Denckla 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Diamond 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The reduction in participants' IQ scores between Time 1 and Time 2 may be attributable to the change in instrument use rather than a real reduction.

    “Given that these different instruments place distinct demands on participants' language and EF skills, we cannot be sure whether the reduction in scores is real or whether it is attributable to the change in instrument use.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Executive function and theory of mind are related during development, such that early executive function plays a critical role in the emergence of theory of mind in typical and autistic children.

    “Together, these findings suggest that EF and ToM are related during development, such that early EF plays a critical role in the emergence of ToM in typical and autistic children (Moses 2001;Russell 1997).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Moses 2001

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Russell 1997

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The findings from the current study suggest that executive function interventions need to be extended into the preschool period.

    “the findings from the current study suggest that we need to extend EF interventions into the preschool period”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Early executive function difficulties causally influence later behavioral outcomes in autistic children, rather than merely correlating with them.
37 of 37

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Participants who did not return at Time 2 do not differ from those who did in their Time 1 executive function or theory of mind skills.

    “There were no significant differences between those children who participated at Time 2 (n = 28) and those who did not (n = 17) in terms of Time 1 age (p = 0.99), verbal ability, (p = 0.41), non-verbal ability (p = 0.55) or ADI-R algorithm score (p = 0.32).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Early executive function difficulties causally influence later behavioral outcomes in autistic children, rather than merely correlating with them.

    “the current results suggest that EF difficulties are likely to place the individual autistic child at greater likelihood for a poor developmental outcome”
    “provides compelling evidence of the important contribution of early individual differences in EF in shaping autistic children's developmental trajectories.”
2 of 2

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Consistentr(19) = 0.41reported p = .06 · recomputed p = .065

    “r(19) = 0.41, p = .06”

  • ConsistentF(3, 20) = 0.09reported p = .96 · recomputed p = .965

    “F(3,20) = 0.09, p = .96”

  • ConsistentF(1, 19) = 11.69reported p = .003 · recomputed p = .003

    “F(1,19) = 11.69,p = .003”

  • ConsistentF(4, 19) = 3.03reported p = .04 · recomputed p = .043

    “F(4, 19) = 3.03, p = .04”

  • ConsistentF(3, 24) = 2.95reported p = .05 · recomputed p = .053

    “F(3,24) = 2.95, p = .05”

  • ConsistentF(1, 23) = 4.42reported p = .047 · recomputed p = .047

    “F(1,23) = 4.42, p = .047”

  • ConsistentF(4, 23) = 3.64reported p = .019 · recomputed p = .019

    “F(4,23) = 3.64, p = .019”

7 of 7

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Direction of nonverbal-ability prediction is reversed in the conclusion

    Major

    The narrative says better early nonverbal ability predicted higher adaptive-behavior scores, but the final regression model gives nonverbal ability a significant negative coefficient. Holding the other predictors constant, that coefficient predicts lower scores with higher nonverbal ability.

  • Reported mean follow-up duration does not match the mean ages

    Minor

    The methods give mean ages of 5 years 7 months and 17 years 7 months for the same participants, a difference of 12 years, but report a mean duration of 12 years 2 months.

  • Mixed-background count is inconsistent with its percentage

    Minor

    Ten of 28 participants would be 35.7%, not 3%. The stated ethnic-background counts also total 37, exceeding the sample of 28.

    Reported 3 · recomputed 35.714286

  • Mean age at Time 2 differs between abstract and methods

    Minor

    The abstract gives a mean Time 2 age of 17 years 10 months, while the participant description gives 17 years 7 months.

4 of 4

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 15

  1. American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
  2. Crone, E. A., Peters, S., & Steinbeis, N. (2017). Executive function development in adolescence. In S. A. Wiebe & J. Karbach (Eds.), Executive function: Development across the life span. New York: Routledge.
  3. Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, L. M. (1997). Peabody picture vocabulary test (3rd ed.). Circle Pines: American Guidance Service.
  4. Heaton, R. K. (1981). Wisconsin card sorting test manual. Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources.
  5. Lord, C., Rutter, M., DiLavore, P., Risi, S., Gotham, K., & Bishop, S. (2012). Autism diagnostic observation schedule–2nd edition (ADOS-2). Los Angeles: Western Psychological Corporation.
  6. Luria, A. R. (1966). Higher cortical functions in man. New York: Basic Books.
  7. Perner, J. (1998). The meta-intentional nature of executive functions and theory of mind. In P. Carruthers & J. Boucher (Eds.), Language and thought: Interdisciplinary themes (pp. 270–283). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. · DOI
  8. Roid, G. H., & Miller, L. J. (1997). Leiter international performance scale—Revised. Wood Dale: Stoelting.
  9. Russell, J. (1996). Agency: Its role in mental development. Hove: Erlbaum.
  10. Russell, J. (1997). How executive disorders can bring about an adequate theory of mind. In J. Russell (Ed.), Autism as an executive disorder (pp. 256–304). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  11. Sparrow, S., Balla, D. A., & Cicchetti, D. (1984). Vineland adaptive behavior scales (expanded form). Circle Pine: American Guidance Service.
  12. Sparrow, S., Cicchetti, D., & Balla, D. A. (2005). Vineland adaptive behavior scales second edition: Survey forms manual. Minneapolis: Pearson.
  13. Tager-Flusberg, H. (2003). Exploring the relationships between theory of mind and social-communicative functioning in children with autism. In B. Repacholi & V. Slaughter (Eds.), Individual differences in theory of mind: Implications for typical and atypical development (pp. 197–212). London: Psychology Press.
  14. Turner, M. A. (1997). Towards an executive dysfunction account of repetitive behavior in autism. In J. Russell (Ed.), Autism as an executive disorder (pp. 57–100). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  15. Wechsler, D. (1989). Wechsler preschool and primary scale of intelligence—Revised. New York: Psychological Corporation.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Kenny, L., Cribb, S. J., & Pellicano, E.
Affiliations
  • University College London (GB)
  • The University of Western Australia (AU)
Corresponding author
Pellicano, Elizabeth
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2018-11-13
Volume
47
Issue
6
Pages
1089-1099
ISSN
  • 0091-0627 (ISSN-L)
  • 1573-2835
DOI
10.1007/s10802-018-0493-8
OpenAlex
W2901134750
Cited by
88
References
77
Citations by year
2026: 7 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 6 · 2014: 1
FWCI
5.36
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • Leverhulme Trust (Philip Leverhulme Prize)
  • University of Western Australia (N/A)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Child Nutrition and Feeding Issues
Keywords
autism spectrum disorder, executive function, theory of mind, false belief understanding, adaptive behavior, autistic traits, early childhood predictors, long-term prognosis, emerging adulthood, cognitive flexibility, inhibition, planning, early intervention
MeSH terms
Autism Spectrum Disorder, Adaptation, Psychological, Adolescent, Adult, Child, Child, Preschool, Female, Humans, Human Development, Male, Prospective Studies, Young Adult, Executive Function, Theory of Mind

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-06.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-06.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review