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New Perspectives on the Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe
Open accessAbstract
This review draws from old and new archaeological data and takes interpretive flavor from indigenous African concepts to demonstrate that, within a context of local and external interfaces, Great Zimbabwe’s political economy was a mosaic rooted more in a mix of seasonally specific, household-based, compositional strategies of production and circulation and less in the redistribution of archaeologically low-frequency exotics from the Indian Ocean. An ideology based on the hierarchical triad of land, ancestors, and belief in God underwrote custodial rights and extractive powers that at times enabled rulers to access a share of productive, allocative, and circulative activities in their territories. Simultaneously, households and communities freely participated in the economy, often inside and outside state control and influence, demonstrating the individual, collective, mixed, embedded, and capillary nature of the political economy.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that Great Zimbabwe’s political economy was a decentralized mosaic of seasonally scheduled, household-based production and capillary circulation, not a centralized system powered by Indian Ocean exotics. It uses archaeological, historical, and ethnographic evidence to show that local ideologies of land, ancestors, and belief in God underwrote rulers’ extractive shares while households and communities traded freely inside and outside state control.
Key findings
- Production was dispersed and household-based: metallurgy, pottery, weaving, soapstone carving, drystone walling, cattle keeping, agriculture, and hunting were practiced across walled and unwalled areas, with no large production debris, kilns, or clear product specialization found at Great Zimbabwe or in a 50-km survey.
- Circulation was decentralized and transient, with no fixed redistribution centers; imported ceramics at Great Zimbabwe are unlikely to exceed 100, while the Renders Ruin hoard contained more than 100,000 glass beads plus a jade teapot, Persian bowl, Chinese celadon, coral, and other items. Tin was sourced from Rooiberg 500 km away, and iron gongs and X-shaped copper ingots suggest central African connections.
- New radiocarbon work doubled the existing dates for the 720-ha site and showed unwalled settlements occupied post-AD 1450 into the 17th century, with Khami-type glass beads (AD 1450–1650) and a Portuguese ceramic ndoro imitation post-AD 1500, challenging the older AD 1450 cutoff.
- Exotics were incorporated into local logics but did not supplant local sources of power such as cattle, land, drystone walls, and soapstone birds; the political economy was neither command-based nor market-based, and rulers accessed shares through an ideology linking land, ancestors, and God.
Methods
- Review and synthesis of old and new archaeological data, legacy collections, archival records, oral histories, Portuguese documents, and ethnographies, using illustrative and comparative analogies.
- New excavations led by the author between 2014 and 2017 targeted unwalled settlements around the Carpark Midden, Fireguard Midden, and Mujejeje, alongside radiocarbon dating that doubled existing dates.
- Comparative historical and ethnographic cases from the Mutapa and Torwa-Changamire states, Njanja iron production, Phalaborwa, Bassar, and other African contexts, plus material analyses cited from thin-section petrography, SEM-EDS, XRF, NAA, and lead isotope studies.
Limitations
- Stated: late 19th-century treasure hunting stripped key deposits; unwalled settlements were neglected; little work exists in the broader territory; organic preservation is poor; no flotation was done in most excavations; no pottery production sites or kilns have been found; copper ingots and iron gongs lack scientific provenance studies; and the transhumance hypothesis for cattle must be empirically tested.
- Stated: oral traditions come from culturally related but not directly connected people; Portuguese documents do not directly refer to Great Zimbabwe; and colonial-era tribal divisions limit the utility of ethnographic analogies.
- Evident: as a synthesis, many conclusions rest on analogies and legacy data rather than comprehensive primary evidence across the whole state, and the state’s boundaries remain unknown.
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Claims the paper makes
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- Findingcitation§ Metallurgy
Evidence of primary production and secondary processing of ferrous and nonferrous metals and alloys is present in earlier and later homesteads dispersed across Great Zimbabwe.
“Evidence of primary production and secondary processing of ferrous and nonferrous metals and alloys is present in earlier (c.AD 1000) and later (c.AD 1600-1700) homesteads dispersed across Great Zimbabwe.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingcitation§ Metallurgy
Metal production at Great Zimbabwe and on the wider cultural landscape was relatively small-scale and limited.
“The relatively small-scale nature of metal production at Great Zimbabwe is matched by the limited nature of metal fabrication on the wider cultural landscape (Bandama et al. 2016(Bandama et al. , 2017;;Chirikure 2007Chirikure , 2015;;Mtetwa 2017).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Findingcitation§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
When compared to fixed Portuguese redistribution centers such as Dambarare, Great Zimbabwe yielded modest amounts of imports such as porcelain and glass beads.
“When compared to fixed Portuguese redistribution centers such as Dambarare, Great Zimbabwe yielded modest amounts of imports such as porcelain and glass beads (Chirikure 2014).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chirikure 2014 source
- Findingcitation§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
A rough calculation of the ratio of imported objects, such as glass beads, per cubic meter of deposit, yields a very low return for all areas of Great Zimbabwe.
“A rough calculation of the ratio of imported objects, such as glass beads, per cubic meter of deposit, yields a very low return for all areas of Great Zimbabwe (see also Garlake 1973;Robinson 1961b).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Garlake 1973
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Robinson 1961b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingnone given§ The Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe Within Local-Global Interfaces
As far as Great Zimbabwe is concerned, dispersion of production appears to be the commonly practiced way of organizing production.
“As far as Great Zimbabwe is concerned, dispersion of production appears to be the commonly practiced way of organizing production.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Premisecitation§ Crafting the Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe: A Critique of Sources of Information
Oral histories collected from Shona elders living around Great Zimbabwe from the early 20th century onward are derived from people who are culturally related but not directly connected to Great Zimbabwe.
“The major limitation of the oral traditions collected by Mtetwa and others is that they were derived from people who are culturally related but not directly connected to Great Zimbabwe.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Mtetwa 1976
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationcitation§ Introduction
Great Zimbabwe developed a mosaic political economy in which production and circulation were embedded in compositional strategies essential for meeting collective and individual needs at all levels.
“Rather, it developed a mosaic political economy in which production and circulation were embedded in compositional strategies (e.g., cooperative, based on differences in skills, knowledge) essential for meeting collective and individual needs at all levels-household, village, district, province, capital, state-within a multidimensional environment conditioned by local particularities”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data§ Abstract
Great Zimbabwe's political economy was a mosaic rooted more in a mix of seasonally specific, household-based, compositional strategies of production and circulation and less in the redistribution of archaeologically low-frequency exotics from the Indian Ocean.
“Great Zimbabwe's political economy was a mosaic rooted more in a mix of seasonally specific, household-based, compositional strategies of production and circulation and less in the redistribution of archaeologically lowfrequency exotics from the Indian Ocean.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Crafting the Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe: A Critique of Sources of Information
The archive of objects from archaeological work at Great Zimbabwe varies in quality and utility because of legacy issues such as varying standards of excavation and documentation through time.
“The archive varies in quality and utility because of legacy issues such as varying standards of excavation and documentation through time”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chirikure et al. 2017b source
- Premisecitation§ Crafting the Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe: A Critique of Sources of Information
The division of groups now known as Shona into Karanga, Zezuru, Ndau, etc., was a dubious colonial invention by the Southern Rhodesian Missionary Conference that created groups who did not previously identify with these labels.
“The division of groups now known as Shona into Karanga, Zezuru, Ndau, etc., was a dubious colonial invention by the Southern Rhodesian Missionary Conference that created groups who did not previously identify with these labels”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chimhundu 1992 source
- Premisecitation§ Crafting the Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe: A Critique of Sources of Information
Recent work has uncovered crucibles for working metal, slag, and other activities associated with metalworking in contexts where Huffman's model expected only royal wives or initiation, an activity generally reserved for men.
“And yet, this expectation is not met; recent work has uncovered crucibles for working metal, slag, and other activities associated with metalworking, an activity generally reserved for men”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Bandama et al. 2016;Chirikure and Pikirayi 2008
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationcitation§ Circulation and Consumption of Commodities
The high frequency of cattle bone at Great Zimbabwe is not a credible indicator of the actual contribution of hunting to the diet of farming communities in southern Africa.
“Consequently, that bones of cattle are more abundant than those of wild animals is not a credible indicator of the actual contribution of hunting to the diet of farming communities in southern Africa (De Luna 2016).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites De Luna 2016 source
- Premisecitation§ Great Zimbabwe: A Brief History of the Site and Previous Treatments of the Political Economy
Almost all radiocarbon dates for Great Zimbabwe came from walled settlements.
“Of particular concern was that almost all these dates (barring a few, see Huffman and Vogel 1991) came from walled settlements.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Huffman and Vogel 1991 source
- Interpretationreasoning§ Crafting the Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe: A Critique of Sources of Information
The colonial invention of Shona subgroups limits the utility of such inventions as valid structures for historical study.
“This limits the utility of such inventions as valid structures for historical study”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kopytoff 1987;Ranger 1983;Stahl 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationnone given§ Abstract
An ideology based on the hierarchical triad of land, ancestors, and belief in God underwrote custodial rights and extractive powers that at times enabled rulers to access a share of productive, allocative, and circulative activities in their territories.
“An ideology based on the hierarchical triad of land, ancestors, and belief in God underwrote custodial rights and extractive powers that at times enabled rulers to access a share of productive, allocative, and circulative activities in their territories.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data§ Pottery Production
The abundance of domestic pottery from all occupation periods suggests that pottery production was a major craft activity at Great Zimbabwe.
“The abundance of domestic pottery (Fig. 6) from all occupation periods suggests that its production was a major craft activity at the site.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Crafting the Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe: A Critique of Sources of Information
Instances where leads from ethnography do not converge with those from archaeology should be considered as evidence of variation in practice through time.
“These instances where leads from ethnography do not converge with those from archaeology should be considered as evidence of variation in practice through time”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Guyer 2007;Stahl 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisenone given§ Great Zimbabwe: A Brief History of the Site and Previous Treatments of the Political Economy
Until recently, attempts to refine the chronology of Great Zimbabwe were hampered by a sparsity of radiocarbon dates (23 radiocarbon dates for 720 ha).
“Until recently, attempts to refine the chronology of Great Zimbabwe were hampered by a sparsity of radiocarbon dates (23 radiocarbon dates for 720 ha).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ Organization of Production in Historical and Ethnographic State and Nonstate Societies (AD 1500-1900)
Great Zimbabwe had a vibrant economic system reliant on local, regional, and global inputs, depending on the category of practice.
“Great Zimbabwe had a vibrant economic system that, depending on the category of practice, was reliant on local inputs from nearby or at varying distances away from the capital, regional inputs from within Africa, and global inputs from beyond the continent.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The available archaeological evidence, despite looting and limited excavation, is sufficient to support inferences about production and circulation at Great Zimbabwe.
- Interpretationcitation§ Introduction
Within a constantly shifting mosaic, the global and the exotic were only incorporated, appropriated, and recontextualized to the extent that they intersected with local political economic logics.
“Within such a constantly shifting mosaic, the global and the exotic were only incorporated, appropriated, and recontextualized to the extent that they intersected with local political economic logics”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisenone given§ Great Zimbabwe: A Brief History of the Site and Previous Treatments of the Political Economy
A review of archaeological literature exposes the absence of comprehensive studies of the political economy of Great Zimbabwe and the state that it controlled.
“A review of archaeological literature exposes the absence of comprehensive studies of the political economy of the site and the state that it controlled.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ Introduction
When fitted into local economies, exotics and global commodities became local and acquired local meanings in rituals, aesthetics, personhood, status, trade, and exchange, which limited the thresholds they could cross in the receiving communities.
“When fitted into local economies, such exotics and global commodities became local and acquired local meanings in rituals, aesthetics, personhood, status, trade, and exchange, among others, which limited the thresholds they could cross in the receiving communities”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Defining Concepts: Production, Circulation/Distribution, Surplus, and Consumption
The circulation of goods and services, regardless of motive, was often nested and blended together.
“the circulation of goods and services, regardless of motive, was often nested and blended together (Chirikure 2017;Morehart and De Lucia 2015;Stahl 2015).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
When available, imports may have been used in various contexts that augmented social status for commoners and elites alike.
“When available they may have been used in various contexts that augmented social status for commoners and elites alike.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
The circulation and consumption of exotics at Great Zimbabwe was not very high.
“This suggests that the circulation and consumption of exotics was not very high.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
More local commodities were consumed at Great Zimbabwe than regional and exotic ones.
“Yet more local commodities were consumed than regional and exotic ones.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Organization of Production in Historical and Ethnographic State and Nonstate Societies (AD 1500-1900)
An ideology that gave ownership of land and other resources to rulers underwrote their ability to access a share of production, which was not necessarily viewed as surplus.
“An ideology that gave ownership of land and other resources to the rulers also underwrote their ability to access a share of the production, which was not necessarily viewed as surplus (Chirikure 2007).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chirikure 2007 source
- Premisecitation§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
Often, there was some justification, religious or mythical, that accounted for the dominance of those who ascended to political power based on coveted knowledge.
“Often, there was some justification, religious or mythical, that accounted for the dominance of those who ascended to political power based on coveted knowledge (Chirikure 2006;Robertshaw 1999;De Maret 1999;Vansina 1999).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
In cases where people built a power base founded on coveted knowledge, first comers to the land became ritual specialists for the second comers who then became political leaders.
“In cases where people built a power base founded on coveted knowledge, first comers to the land became ritual specialists for the second comers who then became political leaders (Kopytoff 1987).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kopytoff 1987
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationcitation§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
The construction of drystone walls by communal work parties and other forms of labor shows the efficacy of cooperation and collective action in building prestige and status symbols.
“The construction of drystone walls (Fig. 7) by communal work parties and other forms of labor shows the efficacy of cooperation and collective action in building prestige and status symbols (DeMarrais and Earle 2017).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites DeMarrais and Earle 2017 source
- Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
Elite and commoner households at the capital and in the broader territory participated in the same kinds of activities with nearly identical degrees of intensity and concentration.
“Elite and commoner households at the capital and in the broader territory participated in the same kinds of activities with nearly identical degrees of intensity and concentration.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
Rain-fed agriculture sustained farming at Great Zimbabwe.
“The inference is that rain-fed agriculture sustained farming at Great Zimbabwe.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
Circulation at Great Zimbabwe took place at transient production and distribution centers where people worked and lived.
“Instead, circulation took place at transient production and distribution centers where people worked and lived.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
To date, no evidence of large-scale production debris for crafts such as metallurgy, weaving, and agricultural processing has been recovered at Great Zimbabwe or the wider area.
“To date, and in relative terms, no evidence of largescale production debris for crafts such as metallurgy, weaving, and even agricultural processing has been recovered at Great Zimbabwe or the wider area (Garlake 1973;Mtetwa 2017;Sinclair 1987).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Garlake 1973
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Mtetwa 2017
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Sinclair 1987
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
Ancestors, stone walls, and cattle would have provided far more stable pivots for wealth and symbolic power than glass beads, cowries, cloth, and porcelain.
“Ancestors, stone walls, and cattle would have provided far more stable pivots for wealth and symbolic power.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
The value and significance of exotic commodities such as glass beads was marginal and situational.
“While the social status of exotic commodities such as glass beads was acknowledged as such, to the extent that individuals made trips to the coast, their value and significance was marginal and situational (Berry 2007;Guyer 2007).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationnone given§ The Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe Within Local-Global Interfaces
An ideology that emphasized social surplus in the form of wealth-in-people meant that material surpluses were not that important.
“An ideology that emphasized social surplus in the form of wealth-in-people meant that material surpluses were not that important.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
The capillary nature of the political economy of Great Zimbabwe promoted equal access to imports for individuals and households across social strata.
“The capillary nature of the political economy of Great Zimbabwe promoted equal access to imports for individuals and households across social strata, which explains why exotics have been found in elite and commoner households at Great Zimbabwe and beyond (Chirikure 2014).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chirikure 2014 source
- Premisecitation§ Organization of Production in Historical and Ethnographic State and Nonstate Societies (AD 1500-1900)
Among the 17th- and 20th-century Shona, virtually all commodities were eventually converted into wealth-in-cattle, which was a gateway to wealth-in-people.
“According to Beach (1974, p. 11), among the 17th-and 20th-century Shona, when one had a kraal of cattle, whether inside a state or outside it, all had power; virtually all commodities from grain to salt, metallurgy, and exotics such as glass beads were eventually converted into wealth-in-cattle, which was a gateway to wealth-in-people (e.g., Guyer 2004).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Beach 1974
- cites Guyer 2004
- Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
Exotics never crossed a threshold where they could supplant the value of productive elements such as cattle, land, and iron hoes in the political economy.
“More importantly, exotics never crossed a threshold where they could supplant the value of productive elements such as cattle, land, and iron hoes in the political economy.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
The low frequency of objects at Great Zimbabwe indicates that they were not used as symbols of political power.
“As such, the low frequency of objects at Great Zimbabwe indicates that they were not used as symbols of political power.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ The Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe Within Local-Global Interfaces
The idea of surplus representing only goods in excess of consumption requirements does not always apply.
“Therefore, the idea of surplus representing only goods in excess of consumption requirements (Morehart and De Lucia 2015) does not always apply.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Morehart and De Lucia 2015 source
- Premisecitation§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
The status of a person gave significance to objects and space, such that a mundane spear owned by a king had higher status than a similar spear owned by a commoner, even if forged by the same smith.
“A mundane spear owned by a king had a higher status than a similar spear owned by a commoner, even if the two were forged by the same smith (Moffett and Chirikure 2016).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Moffett and Chirikure 2016 source
- Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
Local ideologies based on ancestors and land were critical.
“Here, local ideologies based on ancestors and land were critical.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
Circulation at Great Zimbabwe was likely based on a combination of exacting a share of production by the rulers and allowing individuals and households to freely trade among themselves.
“The variable manner in which goods, commodities, and services circulated ethnographically and historically indicates that circulation at Great Zimbabwe was likely based on a combination of exacting a share of production by the rulers and allowing individuals and households to freely trade among themselves.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
The cumulative sum of relatively small scatters of production, when considered in space and time, aggregates into large-scale production.
“However, the cumulative sum of relatively small scatters of production, when considered in space and time, aggregates into large-scale production (Chirikure 2015).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chirikure 2015 source
- Interpretationcitation§ The Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe Within Local-Global Interfaces
The establishment of relationships of reciprocity that ensured a given social unit could call upon the collective labor of another was important.
“Rather, the establishment of relationships of reciprocity that ensured a given social unit could call upon the collective labor of another was important (e.g., Blanton and Fargher 2009;DeMarrais and Earle 2017).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Blanton and Fargher 2009
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites DeMarrais and Earle 2017 source
- Premisecitation§ Organization of Production in Historical and Ethnographic State and Nonstate Societies (AD 1500-1900)
Mutapa and Torwa-Changamire kings allocated land for cultivation to lower-level social units such as households, based on an ideology linking ancestors, land control, and political power.
“Based on an ideology that linked ancestors, land control, and political power, Mutapa and Torwa-Changamire kings allocated land for cultivation to lower-level social units, such as households (Chirikure et al. 2017a;Mudenge 1988).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Chirikure et al. 2017a source
- cites Mudenge 1988
- Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
One cannot generalize that the concept of wealth-in-people always applied in Africa, everywhere, because there were examples where variations existed.
“One cannot, then, generalize that the concept of wealthin-people always applied in Africa, everywhere, because there were examples where variations existed.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
The status of imports in the historical period was variable.
“Examples from the historical period suggest that the status of imports-symbolic and otherwise-in the historical period was variable (Chirikure 2014;Moffett and Chirikure 2016).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
Relatively small-scale scatters of production at Great Zimbabwe and in the broader area attest to the existence of dispersed production systems for crafts such as metallurgy and possibly ivory working and salt production.
“Consequently, there appears to be convergence between historical and archaeological observations that relatively small-scale scatters of production at Great Zimbabwe itself and in the broader area attest to the existence of dispersed production systems for such crafts as metallurgy and possibly ivory working and salt production.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production in Historical and Ethnographic State and Nonstate Societies (AD 1500-1900)
Production systems that were variably organized (e.g., concentrated at Bassar, dispersed at Njanja) often produced similar outcomes-goods in excess of those required for household consumption.
“Therefore, production systems that were variably organized (e.g., concentrated at Bassar, dispersed at Njanja) often produced similar outcomes-goods in excess of those required for household consumption.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
Insofar as exotics were incorporated into local contexts in innovative and inventive ways, there are thresholds that they did not cross in domains such as political power.
“In sum, a consideration of the political economy of Great Zimbabwe at the interface of local, regional, and intercontinental interactions shows that insofar as exotics were incorporated into local contexts in innovative and inventive ways, there are thresholds that they did not cross in domains such as political power.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ Organization of Production in Historical and Ethnographic State and Nonstate Societies (AD 1500-1900)
In southern Africa, metal production was mostly dispersed on the landscape: in homesteads, away from them near the mines, and even far away from homesteads.
“These examples demonstrate that, in southern Africa, metal production was mostly dispersed on the landscape: in homesteads, away from them near the mines, and even far away from homesteads (see Chirikure 2015).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chirikure 2015 source
- Study design and conductnone given§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
The history of looting at Great Zimbabwe precludes a quantitative exploration of consumption based on quantities of recovered local and imported objects.
“However, the history of looting at the site precludes a quantitative exploration of consumption based on the quantities of recovered local and imported objects.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
The connectedness and glomming nature of exchange makes categories such as regional, local, and international circulation of little practical significance beyond analytical convenience.
“In practice, this connectedness and glomming nature of exchange makes categories such as regional, local, and international circulation of little practical significance beyond analytical convenience (Chirikure 2017).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chirikure 2017
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
The abundant cattle bone indicates that cattle raising was a key socioeconomic and political activity at Great Zimbabwe.
“The abundant cattle bone indicates that cattle raising was a key socioeconomic and political activity at Great Zimbabwe (Barker 1978;Garlake 1978;Thorp 1995).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationcitation§ Organization of Production in Historical and Ethnographic State and Nonstate Societies (AD 1500-1900)
Ownership and control of mines was variable and often mixed in both state and nonstate societies.
“Based on historical evidence, ownership and control of mines was not only variable but was often mixed in both state and nonstate societies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ Organization of Production in Historical and Ethnographic State and Nonstate Societies (AD 1500-1900)
For Shona mining and metallurgy, historical and ethnographic records from the 16th century and after show that these pursuits were seasonally specific and scheduled events that exploited the labor of women, men, and children in both state and nonstate societies.
“For Shona mining and metallurgy, historical and ethnographic records from the 16th century and after show that these pursuits were seasonally specific and scheduled events that, within variation, exploited the labor of women, men, and children in both state and nonstate societies, (Beach 1974;Phimister 1974b).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Beach 1974
- cites Phimister 1974b source
- Interpretationreasoning§ Circulation of Commodities in Historical State and Nonstate Societies AD 1500-1900
In the Mutapa state, circulation took place at various scales, from household through community to interpolity levels, demonstrating the all-permeating and capillary nature of the political economy.
“Circulation took place at various scales, from the household through the community to interpolity levels, demonstrating the all-permeating and capillary nature of the political economy.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ The Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe Within Local-Global Interfaces
Most existing knowledge about the political economy of Great Zimbabwe is based on extrapolating older ideas of political economies from elsewhere.
“An analysis of the political economy of Great Zimbabwe shows that most existing knowledge is based on extrapolating what is now older ideas of political economies from elsewhere.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Circulation of Commodities in Historical State and Nonstate Societies AD 1500-1900
Ownership of cattle and land, and possession of coveted knowledge, were more predictable sources of prestige and value than exotics.
“It was recently demonstrated that ownership of cattle and land, previously dismissed as a source of social power as well as possession of coveted knowledge, were more predictable sources of prestige and value than exotics (Chirikure 2014).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chirikure 2014 source
- Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe State
The prevalence of scatters of production debris at Great Zimbabwe, around it, and near chronologically overlapping production sites indicates that dispersal and not concentration was the most common form of organization of production.
“The prevalence of scatters of production debris at the site, around it, and near the chronologically overlapping production sites such as mines and salt pans indicates that dispersal and not concentration was the most common form of organization of production.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe Within Local-Global Interfaces
It is unlikely that concepts such as attached specialists or independent specialists are of great analytical aid in this context where social units were allowed individual and collective enterprise moderated by prevailing ideologies.
“A final point on production and its organization: although production was seasonally organized around subsistence as in prehispanic Mesoamerica, it is unlikely that concepts such as attached specialists or independent specialists are of great analytical aid in this context where social units were allowed individual and collective enterprise moderated by prevailing ideologies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe Within Local-Global Interfaces
For Great Zimbabwe, the influx of exotics from the Indian Ocean was not centrally monopolized or centrally redistributed.
“For Great Zimbabwe, this means that the influx of exotics from the Indian Ocean was not centrally monopolized or centrally redistributed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe Within Local-Global Interfaces
Ideological contours conditioned whether communities valued material surpluses or social surpluses.
“Ideological contours conditioned whether communities valued material surpluses or social surpluses.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe Within Local-Global Interfaces
Great Zimbabwe's dispersed production system was matched by a decentralized circulation system with no fixed distribution centers.
“Great Zimbabwe's dispersed production system was also matched by a decentralized circulation system with no fixed distribution centers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- It may state two separate claims as one. 45
- Probably not a substantial claim. 31
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingcitation§ Great Zimbabwe: A Brief History of the Site and Previous Treatments of the Political EconomyAn analysis of historically datable imports and unpublished legacy collections revealed Khami-type glass beads (AD 1450-1650) and a ceramic ndoro.
“An analysis of historically datable imports from the same excavations, and a study of unpublished legacy collections in the Great Zimbabwe Conservation Center, revealed Khami-type glass beads (AD 1450-1650) and a ceramic ndoro (imitation of a conus shell made by the Portuguese post-AD 1500; Ellert 1984).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ellert 1984
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown data§ Great Zimbabwe: A Brief History of the Site and Previous Treatments of the Political EconomyThe doubling of existing radiocarbon dates showed that most unwalled settlements were occupied post-AD 1450, with settlement persisting into the 17th century.
“The doubling of existing radiocarbon dates showed that most unwalled settlements were occupied post-AD 1450, with settlement persisting into the 17th century.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingcitation§ MetallurgyGreat Zimbabwe imported metals and alloys from other areas, including tin from Rooiberg 500 km away and brass from the Indian Ocean rim.
“Great Zimbabwe also imported metals and alloys from other areas, such as tin from Rooiberg, 500 km away in northern South Africa (Grant 1999;Molofsky et al. 2014), and brass from the Indian Ocean rim (Bandama et al. 2017).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingreasoning§ Pottery ProductionMineralogical studies indicate that the clay used to make pottery at Great Zimbabwe was granite derived and likely local.
“Mineralogical studies of pottery clay reveal that the clay used to make pots was granite derived and, as such, was likely local.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Findingnone given§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe StateThe iron gongs are from Danamombe, Chiumnungwa, Thulamela, and the coastal Zimbabwe-tradition site of Manyikeni.
“What is of interest is that the iron gongs are from Danamombe, Chiumnungwa, Thulamela, and the coastal Zimbabwe-tradition site of Manyikeni.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationcitation§ Defining Concepts: Production, Circulation/Distribution, Surplus, and ConsumptionThe practical and institutional context within which things are created, thought about, and valued is a dynamically situational and transformational process.
“This underscores the observation that the practical and institutional context within which things are created, thought about, and valued is a dynamically situational and transformational process”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chirikure 2014;Guyer 2007;Stahl 2015
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ Defining Concepts: Production, Circulation/Distribution, Surplus, and ConsumptionIdeologies affect attitudes to production, surplus accumulation, circulation, and consumption, often producing different outcomes even if outward expressions look the same.
“ideologies-a combination of overarching ideas and configuration of practices-operating at different cross-societal levels (DeMarrais et al. 1996) affect attitudes to production, surplus accumulation, circulation, and consumption, which often produce different outcomes, even if the outward expressions look the same (McIntosh 1999).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites DeMarrais et al. 1996 source
- cites McIntosh 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationcitation§ IntroductionThe political economic processes associated with Great Zimbabwe and related polities were driven more by local dynamics and minimally by global interactions that brought few exotics that were accessible to all, regardless of class.
“From a cross-regional comparative point of view, I argue that the political economic processes associated with Great Zimbabwe and related polities were driven more by local dynamics and minimally by global interactions that brought few exotics that were accessible to all, regardless of class”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ Great Zimbabwe: A Brief History of the Site and Previous Treatments of the Political EconomyBy the 1960s and 1970s, professional archaeologists confirmed that Great Zimbabwe was built by local people.
“By the 1960s and 1970s, professional archaeologists (all expatriates) confirmed that Great Zimbabwe was built by local people”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Garlake 1973;Summers et al. 1961
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ Defining Concepts: Production, Circulation/Distribution, Surplus, and ConsumptionProduction in southern Africa was concentrated in one place or dispersed on the landscape.
“Production, it seems, was concentrated in one place or dispersed on the landscape”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chirikure 2015;Feinman and Nicholas 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationcitation§ Circulation and Consumption of CommoditiesGreat Zimbabwe participated in broader Indian Ocean circulation networks, receiving commodities from Arabia, India, Indonesia, and China and exporting gold, ivory, and cloth.
“Beyond African commodities, Great Zimbabwe participated in broader networks of circulation that incorporated the Indian Ocean rim.Such circulation brought variable quantities of commodities from the Arabian Peninsula, the Indian subcontinent, Indonesia, and China to Great Zimbabwe and took commodities such as gold, ivory, and cloth from the state to these other world areas (Chirikure 2014).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chirikure 2014 source
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ Defining Concepts: Production, Circulation/Distribution, Surplus, and ConsumptionThe presence of goods manufactured in one region, when found in another with no production evidence, suggests trade and exchange.
“the presence of goods and materials manufactured in one region, when found in another, with no production evidence, suggests trade and exchange (Renfrew 1975).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Renfrew 1975
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ Organization of Production in Historical and Ethnographic State and Nonstate Societies (AD 1500-1900)The Torwa-Changamire and Mutapa states (AD 1450-1900) were territorial states presided over by kings who ruled by divine right.
“These two territorial states were presided over by kings who ruled by divine right (Beach 1980;Mudenge 1988).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Beach 1980
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Mudenge 1988
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ Defining Concepts: Production, Circulation/Distribution, Surplus, and ConsumptionThe definition of descriptors of specialization and the expression of behaviors they represent are situational and culturally specific.
“However, the definition of these descriptors and the expression of behaviors they represent are situational and culturally specific”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chirikure 2014 source
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationcitation§ Great Zimbabwe: A Brief History of the Site and Previous Treatments of the Political EconomyMultiple states may have coexisted in the wide region, and the limited nature of research to date makes it difficult to identify boundaries of the Great Zimbabwe state and those of coeval entities.
“However, it is possible that multiple states coexisted in this wide region; the limited nature of research to date makes it difficult to identify boundaries of the Great Zimbabwe state and those of coeval entities”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chirikure et al. 2012 source
It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationown data§ Great Zimbabwe: A Brief History of the Site and Previous Treatments of the Political EconomyBased on new chronological information, the AD 1450 cutoff date does not fully capture what was going on at Great Zimbabwe, a city that ebbed and flowed well into the 17th century.
“Based on this new chronological information, the AD 1450 cutoff date does not fully capture what was going on at Great Zimbabwe, a city that ebbed and flowed well into the 17th century.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ Great Zimbabwe: A Brief History of the Site and Previous Treatments of the Political EconomyFurther research at the site recovered blue on white Chinese porcelain from the Valley Enclosures dating to the 16th century, revealing that the entire town was not abandoned at the same time.
“site (e.g., Collett et al. 1992) recovered blue on white Chinese porcelain from the Valley Enclosures dating to the 16th century, revealing that the entire town was not abandoned at the same time.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Collett et al. 1992 source
It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationown data§ Animal Husbandry, Agriculture, and HuntingAnimal husbandry and crop agriculture were essential pillars of subsistence and economic production at Great Zimbabwe.
“Based on the recovery of remains of domestic animals and crops, animal husbandry and crop agriculture were essential pillars of subsistence and economic production at Great Zimbabwe.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationcitation§ Great Zimbabwe: A Brief History of the Site and Previous Treatments of the Political EconomyThe functioning of the political economy of Great Zimbabwe was grossly oversimplified, based on old models derived from Polynesia and elsewhere that have no consonance with local African concepts and knowledge.
“As a consequence, the functioning of the political economy was grossly oversimplified, based on old models derived from Polynesia and elsewhere that have no consonance with local African concepts and knowledge”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chirikure 2014;McIntosh 1999;Stahl 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ Defining Concepts: Production, Circulation/Distribution, Surplus, and ConsumptionPrestige is culturally and contextually specific and is not associated just with exotics.
“prestige is “in the eye of the beholder”; it is culturally and contextually specific and is not associated just with exotics (Chirikure 2014).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chirikure 2014 source
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Premisenone given§ Crafting the Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe: A Critique of Sources of InformationA consideration of Great Zimbabwe between the late 19th and early 20th centuries reveals amenities, such as a golf course, that were constructed with no prior impact assessment of the unwalled sections mostly on the western and northwestern areas of the site.
“A consideration of Great Zimbabwe between the late 19th and early 20th centuries reveals amenities, such as a golf course, that were constructed with no prior impact assessment of the unwalled sections mostly on the western and northwestern areas of the site.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ Defining Concepts: Production, Circulation/Distribution, Surplus, and ConsumptionGeneralizing the applicability of specialization descriptors everywhere, all the time, does not tell us about variability in strategies of everyday life at cross-cultural scales and unnecessarily hinders a contextual study of production in varied contexts.
“Generalizing their applicability everywhere, all the time, does not tell us about variability in strategies of everyday life at cross-cultural scales and unnecessarily hinders a contextual study of production in varied contexts.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ Great Zimbabwe: A Brief History of the Site and Previous Treatments of the Political EconomyThe sequence of occupation at Great Zimbabwe has five phases, the first of which housed first-millennium farmers.
“Established by Summers et al. (1961), the sequence of occupation at Great Zimbabwe has five phases (Fig. 2), the first of which housed first-millennium farmers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Summers et al. 1961
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ Crafting the Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe: A Critique of Sources of InformationPortuguese documents contain useful information on the political, social, cultural, and economic life of groups now known as Shona, but their utility is diminished by the fact that they do not directly refer to Great Zimbabwe.
“However, the utility of Portuguese documentary sources is diminished by the fact that they do not directly refer to Great Zimbabwe”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Beach 1998 source
It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ AbstractHouseholds and communities freely participated in the economy, often inside and outside state control and influence, demonstrating the individual, collective, mixed, embedded, and capillary nature of the political economy.
“Simultaneously, households and communities freely participated in the economy, often inside and outside state control and influence, demonstrating the individual, collective, mixed, embedded, and capillary nature of the political economy.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ Defining Concepts: Production, Circulation/Distribution, Surplus, and ConsumptionThe value and gains from trade and exchange transactions in Atlantic West Africa between the 15th and 19th centuries were neither static or fixed but situational and marginal.
“More importantly, however, the value and gains from trade and exchange transactions in Atlantic West Africa between the 15th and 19th centuries were neither static or fixed but situational and marginal”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Berry 2007;Guyer 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ Great Zimbabwe: A Brief History of the Site and Previous Treatments of the Political EconomyGreat Zimbabwe is a large, 720-ha multibuilding settlement that functioned as the capital of a 50,000-km2 territorial state of the same name.
“Great Zimbabwe (Fig. 1) is a large, 720-ha multibuilding settlement that functioned as the capital of a 50,000-km 2 territorial state of the same name”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Garlake 1973;Huffman 2007;Kusimba et al. 2017
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ Great Zimbabwe: A Brief History of the Site and Previous Treatments of the Political EconomyDifferent settlements within the 720 ha were capitals that rotated power.
“Additional work supports this view, showing that different settlements within the 720 ha were capitals that rotated power”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Beach 1998;Chirikure and Pikirayi 2008;Chirikure et al. 2017b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Premisenone given§ Crafting the Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe: A Critique of Sources of InformationSome sections of the major enclosures of Great Zimbabwe were rebuilt over the course of the 20th century.
“Also, some sections of the major enclosures of Great Zimbabwe were rebuilt over the course of the 20th century.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisenone given§ Defining Concepts: Production, Circulation/Distribution, Surplus, and ConsumptionThere are only scatters of debris on the landscape and no megamiddens in southern Africa.
“By comparison, there are only scatters of debris on the landscape and no megamiddens in southern Africa.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ IntroductionGreat Zimbabwe had transient production locations and possessed no fixed redistribution centers such that circulation unfolded on recursive scales.
“I show that Great Zimbabwe had transient production locations and possessed no fixed redistribution centers such that circulation unfolded on recursive scales.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Premisenone given§ Crafting the Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe: A Critique of Sources of InformationArchaeological research in Great Zimbabwe's surrounds is very poor, to the extent that the boundaries of the state are unknown.
“Meanwhile, archaeological research in Great Zimbabwe's surrounds is very poor, to the extent that the boundaries of the state are unknown.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ Great Zimbabwe: A Brief History of the Site and Previous Treatments of the Political EconomyPeriods II to V (AD 1000-1900) are related to a succession of builders and users of Great Zimbabwe, generally believed to be local Shona people.
“Periods II to V (AD 1000-1900) are related to a succession of builders and users of Great Zimbabwe, generally believed to be local Shona people”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chirikure et al. 2017b source
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
Study design and conductreasoning§ Circulation and Consumption of CommoditiesLooting, focus on walled monuments, and limited work in the broader territory make it impossible to estimate consumption density from artifact frequencies at Great Zimbabwe.
“A combination of these factors makes it impossible to estimate the density of consumption from the frequency of objects recovered from various areas, based in turn on the ratio of artifacts to cubic meters of excavated deposit.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The available archaeological evidence, despite looting and limited excavation, is sufficient to support inferences about production and circulation at Great Zimbabwe.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ Defining Concepts: Production, Circulation/Distribution, Surplus, and ConsumptionSeemingly exotic materials may have been exchanged as gifts, so attributing them to trade requires caution.
“it is essential to exercise extreme caution before attributing all seemingly exotic materials such as a single glass bead, a piece of Chinese celadon, or a fragment of Islamic fritware to trade, even in regions with no productive capacity of their own, since they may have been exchanged as gifts (Chirikure 2014).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chirikure 2014 source
It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe StateThe near-uniform patterning of production evidence at Great Zimbabwe and on the broader landscape reveals that production was neither ad hoc nor restricted by social position.
“The near-uniform patterning of production evidence at the site and on the broader landscape reveals that production was neither ad hoc nor restricted by social position.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe StateThe political economy is not just about the movement of commodities but also the flow of ideas, people, and values.
“Generically, this confirms the idea that the political economy is not just about the movement of commodities but also the flow of ideas, people, and values.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe StateThe status of a queen might have made the glass beads she owned more valuable than similar beads owned by a commoner.
“Similarly, the status of a queen might have made the glass beads she owned more valuable than similar beads owned by a commoner.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe StateGreat Zimbabwe's political economy was neither command-based nor fixed market-based.
“With such a mix of strategies, Great Zimbabwe's political economy was neither command-based nor fixed market-based (e.g., Feinman and Nicholas 2012).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Feinman and Nicholas 2012 source
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe StateIt is possible that some routes were more heavily used than others, while external exchange may have glommed onto local exchange routes.
“It is possible that some routes were more heavily used than others, while external exchange may have glommed onto local exchange routes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe StateGold, iron, copper, and perhaps tin from near and distant sources were brought to and taken away from Great Zimbabwe in multiple directions, suggesting vibrant internal networks for circulating resources.
“Whatever the mechanisms deployed at Great Zimbabwe, it is clear that gold, iron, copper, and perhaps tin from near and distant sources were brought to and taken away from the capital in multiple directions.This suggests the existence of vibrant internal networks for circulating resources between different areas in the state.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe StateIt is possible that the appearance of copper ingots and iron gongs was an outcome of a direct and indirect relay of ideas that stimulated imitation-inspired innovation at Great Zimbabwe and related places.
“While no scientific studies have been conducted for provenancing copper ingots and iron gongs, it is possible that their appearance was an outcome of a direct and indirect relay of ideas that stimulated imitation-inspired innovation at Great Zimbabwe and related places.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The copper ingots and iron gongs found at Great Zimbabwe originated from Katanga in the DRC or the same central African region.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ Organization of Production in Historical and Ethnographic State and Nonstate Societies (AD 1500-1900)Raising cattle was universally recognized as a vital subsistence and economic practice providing food, wealth, and social power.
“Raising cattle was universally recognized as a vital subsistence and economic practice that provided a source of food, wealth, and social power (Beach 1974; Denbow 1999; Mafeje 1991;Robertshaw 1999;Tsodzo 1976).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Beach 1974
- cites Denbow 1999 source
- cites Mafeje 1991
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ Organization of Production in Historical and Ethnographic State and Nonstate Societies (AD 1500-1900)Work parties provided labor for construction, hunting, feasts, funerals, and other activities, and were a form of collective action and source of social power.
“A form of collective action and source of social power (see DeMarrais and Earle 2017;Guyer 1996;Norman 2015;Stahl 2015), work parties also provided labor for construction, hunting, feasts, funerals, and much more (Gombe 1986).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationcitation§ The Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe Within Local-Global InterfacesGreat Zimbabwe's dispersed production is similar to prehispanic state formations in Mesoamerica but significantly contrasts with known systems in Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt where concentration was a hallmark of centralized and elite-controlled production systems.
“This is similar to prehispanic state formations in Mesoamerica (Feinman and Carballo 2018;Hirth and Pillsbury 2013) but significantly contrasts with known systems in regions such as Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt where concentration was a hallmark of centralized and elite-controlled production systems.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Feinman and Carballo 2018 source
- cites Hirth and Pillsbury 2013
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ Circulation of Commodities in Historical State and Nonstate Societies AD 1500-1900The prestige of exotics was context specific and situational.
“Like value, the prestige of exotics was context specific and situational (Berry 2007).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Berry 2007 source
It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationcitation§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe StateSocial status was distinct from political status, which was underwritten by ancestry and birth.
“Therefore, social status was distinct from political status, which was underwritten by ancestry and birth (Mudenge 1988).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Mudenge 1988
It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe StateIn some African communities, objects associated with royal investiture are all local in origin, and leaders who departed from this tradition often lost power.
“In some African communities, it is common for objects associated with royal investiture to all be local in origin, with leaders who departed from this tradition often losing power (Mudenge 1988).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Mudenge 1988
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe StateThe Yoruba of Nigeria developed their own indigenous glass-making industry, which may have been stimulated by contact with imported glass.
“For example, the Yoruba of Nigeria developed their own indigenous glass-making industry, which may have been stimulated by contact with imported glass (Lankton et al. 2006).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lankton et al. 2006 source
Probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe StateIt is possible that the circulation of ideas and not physical objects resulted in the presence of identical objects across a wide area.
“It is possible that the circulation of ideas and not physical objects resulted in the presence of identical objects across a wide area.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationcitation§ Circulation of Commodities in Historical State and Nonstate Societies AD 1500-1900When incorporated in local value systems, exotics ceased to be exotics: they assumed local names and their value was interchangeable with that of similarly named local commodities.
“However, when incorporated in local value systems, exotics ceased to be exotics: they assumed local names, became local such that their value was interchangeable with that of similarly named local commodities.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe StateThe complexity of value and significance as variables are situational and context dependent.
“The complexity of value and significance as variables are situational and context dependent.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe StateWith distance, circulation networks morphed from local into regional, and from short-distance into long-distance trade relationships that connected regions within Africa with the Indian Ocean world.
“However, with distance, such circulation networks morphed from local into regional, and from shortdistance into long-distance trade relationships that connected regions within Africa with the Indian Ocean world.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe StateAt Great Zimbabwe, each settlement was associated with ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy, weaving, and other economic pursuits, suggesting multicrafting whereby households shifted labor and skills across activities.
“At Great Zimbabwe itself, that each settlement was associated with ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy, weaving, and other economic pursuits suggests the presence of multicrafting whereby households shifted labor and skills across activities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe StateGreat Zimbabwe was neither a fixed distribution nor a redistribution point.
“This suggests that Great Zimbabwe was neither a fixed distribution nor a redistribution point.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe StateBecause the iron gongs were made in the region, they appealed to identical logics of power and status that explain their use as status symbols.
“Because they were made in the region, they appealed to identical logics of power and status that explain their use as status symbols.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe StateAlthough the nature of political organization was hierarchical, decision making and activities were more collective than coercive.
“Although the nature of political organization was hierarchical, decision making and activities were more collective than coercive.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ Organization of Production in Historical and Ethnographic State and Nonstate Societies (AD 1500-1900)Cattle were storable and reproducible wealth used to gain social, economic, and political clients, or to acquire wives through bride wealth.
“An evaluation of the social and economic role of cattle shows that they were storable and reproducible wealth used to gain social, economic, and political clients, or to acquire wives through the payment of bride wealth (Beach 1974;Iliffe 1995;Kuper 1982;Tsodzo 1976).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Beach 1974
- cites Iliffe 1995
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Kuper 1982
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ Circulation of Commodities in Historical State and Nonstate Societies AD 1500-1900The circulation of commodities within state and nonstate societies took place at individual, interhousehold, and intercommunity levels, and wherever needs, wants, and supply and demand intersected.
“The circulation of commodities within state (e.g., Mutapa and Torwa-Changamire) and nonstate societies (e.g., Njanja) took place at individual, interhousehold, and intercommunity levels, and wherever needs, wants, and supply and demand intersected (Chirikure 2014;Moffett and Chirikure 2016).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production in Historical and Ethnographic State and Nonstate Societies (AD 1500-1900)Access to mines was mostly open to all who could work them, but sometimes they were under the control of kings, chiefs, or local rulers.
“Thus, access to mines was mostly open to all who could work them, but sometimes they were under the control of kings, chiefs, or local rulers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ Organization of Production and Circulation at Great Zimbabwe and Within the Zimbabwe StateNo one area of Great Zimbabwe itself and the wider state produced commodities such as metal for others, effectively ruling out any clearly defined product specialization and division of labor.
“That each household was associated with evidence of craft production suggests that no one area of Great Zimbabwe itself and the wider state produced commodities such as metal for others, effectively ruling out any clearly defined product specialization and division of labor (Bandama et al. 2017;Chirikure 2007;Huffman 1972).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationcitation§ Organization of Production in Historical and Ethnographic State and Nonstate Societies (AD 1500-1900)The mere possession of prestige goods such as cattle did not automatically give elites power; it was the conversion of ownership of cattle into social capital that created power.
“The mere possession of prestige goods such as cattle did not automatically give elites power; it was the conversion of ownership of cattle into social capital that created power.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe Within Local-Global InterfacesThe motivating logic for Great Zimbabwe would still be to build wealth in followers.
“The motivating logic would still be to build wealth in followers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe Within Local-Global InterfacesIn some instances, local sources of prestige and status such as cattle, drystone walls, and land were more important politically than imports, whose role was mostly social.
“In some instances, local sources of prestige and status such as cattle, drystone walls, and land were more important politically than imports, whose role was mostly social.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ The Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe Within Local-Global InterfacesGreat Zimbabwe may have produced material surpluses in areas such as cattle.
“That is not to say that Great Zimbabwe may not have produced material surpluses in areas such as cattle.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
Social obligations and gifts, not just necessities, are principal factors driving the circulation of commodities in societies.
“This is possible because other than necessities, social obligations and gifts are principal factors that drive the circulation of commodities in societies.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The available archaeological evidence, despite looting and limited excavation, is sufficient to support inferences about production and circulation at Great Zimbabwe.
“Within the constraints imposed by the available evidence, it is still possible to throw some light on consumption trends and the circulation of commodities at Great Zimbabwe and beyond.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Great Zimbabwe is a Shona political formation.
“Since Great Zimbabwe is acknowledged as a Shona political formation, it is essential to consider the organization of economic and production systems of states that existed between AD 1600 and 1900”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The copper ingots and iron gongs found at Great Zimbabwe originated from Katanga in the DRC or the same central African region.
“The presence of copper ingots that resemble those produced in Katanga in the DRC and iron gongs (Fig. 12) assumed to have originated from the same region are often used as evidence of the circulation of goods over 2000 km between Great Zimbabwe and central Africa (Swan 2007).”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Figure 11 is cited for states but captioned as a teapot
MinorThe text points to Fig. 11 while discussing the Torwa-Changamire and Mutapa states, but the provided Fig. 11 caption identifies a Chinese jade teapot instead.
“Since Great Zimbabwe is acknowledged as a Shona political formation, it is essential to consider the organization of economic and production systems of states that existed between AD 1600 and 1900, notably the southwestern-based Torwa-Changamire state (AD 1450-1900) and the northern-based Mutapa state (AD 1450-1900) (Fig. 11).”
“Figure: 11 Fig. 11 A Fig.11A Chinese jade teapot from the Renders Ruin, Great Zimbabwe; rather than being a luxury, this object may have been a gift offered to facilitate trade and other relations with Indian Ocean-based traders.”
"A few glass beads" conflicts with the reported hoard
MinorThe account characterizes the beads at Great Zimbabwe as "a few," but elsewhere reports a single hoard containing more than 100,000 glass beads. The same sentence mentions a single celadon fragment, whereas the hoard is described as containing fragments of celadon dishes.
“The presence of a single jade teapot, a single fragment of celadon, a few glass beads, etc., shows direct or indirect contact with the Indian Ocean, but whether it is evidence of symbolic and conspicuous consumption is debatable.”
“The highest concentration of glass beads is from the Renders Ruin hoard, more that 100,000.The hoard also includes a jade teapot, a Persian bowl bearing an inscription in Naskhi characters made in the 13th or 14th century, fragments of Chinese celadon dishes”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Chirikure, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Cape Town (ZA)
- Corresponding author
- Chirikure, Shadreck
- Venue
- Journal of Archaeological Research
- Published
- 2019-06-10
- Volume
- 28
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 139-186
- ISSN
- 1059-0161 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-7756
- OpenAlex
- W2950231097
- Cited by
- 35
- References
- 159
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 1
- FWCI
- 7.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Archaeological Research (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- National Research Foundation
- University of Cape Town
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Archeology › Archaeology and Rock Art Studies
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Global Maritime and Colonial Histories
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › African studies and sociopolitical issues
- Keywords
- Great Zimbabwe, political economy, household production, commodity circulation, Indian Ocean trade, state ideology, rulership, state formation
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