Cited by 320Personality Disorders and PsychopathologyChild Abuse and TraumaPsychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 53 of the 53 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Borderline personality disorder and childhood trauma: Evidence for a causal relationship

Ball, Jeffrey S., Links, Paul S.·2009·Current Psychiatry Reports

DOI 10.1007/s11920-009-0010-4

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

The debate over whether childhood trauma is a causative factor in the development of borderline personality disorder continues in the literature despite decades of research. This review examines this body of literature published from 1995 through 2007 to assess the strength of evidence for such a causal relationship. A unique conceptual approach was used, as we considered the literature in the context of Hill's classic criteria for demonstrating causation. Results of this review suggest that evidence supports the causal relationship, particularly if the relationship is considered as part of a multifactorial etiologic model. Directions for future research and clinical implications are discussed.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1007/s11920-009-0010-4

Cites

53 of 53 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Borderline personality disorder
Lieb, K., Zanarini, M. C., Schmahl, C., Linehan, M. M., & Bohus, M. (2004) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(04)16770-6 · Cited by 1,369
Gene-environment interplay and psychopathology: multiple varieties but real effects
Rutter, M., Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (2006) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01557.x · Cited by 1,058
Childhood Maltreatment Increases Risk for Personality Disorders During Early Adulthood
Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Brown, J., Smailes, E. M., & Bernstein, D. P. (1999) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.56.7.600 · Cited by 839
Current information on the scope and nature of child sexual abuse
Finkelhor, D. (1994) · The Future of Children · doi:10.2307/1602522 · Cited by 804
Strategy for Investigating Interactions Between Measured Genes and Measured Environments
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., & Rutter, M. (2005) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.5.473 · Cited by 784
A 27-year follow-up of patients with borderline personality disorder
Paris, J., & Zweig-Frank, H. (2001) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1053/comp.2001.26271 · Cited by 507
Childhood Maltreatment Associated With Adult Personality Disorders: Findings From the Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study
Battle, C. L., Shea, M. T., Johnson, D. M., Yen, S., Zlotnick, C., Zanarini, M. C., Sanislow, C. A., Skodol, A. E., Gunderson, J. G., Grilo, C. M., et al. (2004) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi.18.2.193.32777 · Cited by 492
The children in the community study of developmental course of personality disorder
Cohen, P., Crawford, T. N., Johnson, J. G., & Kasen, S. (2005) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi.2005.19.5.466 · Cited by 433
Randomized Trial of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Chronic Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Adult Female Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse.
McDonagh, A., Friedman, M. J., McHugo, G. J., Ford, J. D., Sengupta, A., Mueser, K. T., Demment, C. C., Fournier, D. A., Schnurr, P. P., & Descamps, M. J. (2005) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.73.3.515 · Cited by 422
CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES ASSOCIATED WITH THE DEVELOPMENT OF BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER
Zanarini, M. C. (2000) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/s0193-953x(05)70145-3 · Cited by 377

Show all 53 references

Research works printed but not linked: 1

Linehan MM: Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Borderline Personality Disorder. New York: Guilford Press; 1993.

Sorted by citations

Annual research review: enduring neurobiological effects of childhood abuse and neglect
Teicher, M. H., & Samson, J. A. (2016) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12507 · Cited by 1,473
Emotion Modulation in PTSD: Clinical and Neurobiological Evidence for a Dissociative Subtype
Lanius, R. A., Vermetten, E., Loewenstein, R. J., Brand, B., Schmahl, C., Bremner, J. D., & Spiegel, D. (2010) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09081168 · Cited by 1,123
Epistemic Petrification and the Restoration of Epistemic Trust: A New Conceptualization of Borderline Personality Disorder and Its Psychosocial Treatment
Fonagy, P., Luyten, P., & Allison, E. (2015) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi.2015.29.5.575 · Cited by 572
“Among individuals with personality disorders, rates of childhood trauma are high (73% report abuse, of which 34% is sexual abuse, and 82% report neglect; Ball & Links, 2009; Chanen & Kaess, 2012).”
Background
Childhood adversity and borderline personality disorder: a meta‐analysis
Porter, C., Palmier‐Claus, J., Branitsky, A., Mansell, W., Warwick, H., & Varese, F. (2020) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.13118 · Cited by 450
The effects of early life stress on reward processing
Novick, A. M., Levandowski, M. L., Laumann, L. E., Philip, N. S., Price, L. H., & Tyrka, A. R. (2018) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2018.02.002 · Cited by 192
Borderline personality disorder, complex trauma, and problems with self and identity: A social‐communicative approach
Luyten, P., Campbell, C., & Fonagy, P. (2020) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12483 · Cited by 181
Complex PTSD, affect dysregulation, and borderline personality disorder
Ford, J. D., & Courtois, C. A. (2014) · Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation · doi:10.1186/2051-6673-1-9 · Cited by 182
“, maltreatment, caregiving, extra-familial relationships) likely interact in complex ways in BPD etiology [71,80,81,84-87].”
Initial Validation of the Spanish Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-Short Form
Hernández, A., Gallardo‐Pujol, D., Pereda, N., Arntz, A. R., Bernstein, D. P., Gaviria, A. M., Labad, A., Valero, J., & Gutiérrez-Zotes, J. A. (2012) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260512468240 · Cited by 195
“Retrospective self-assessment instruments for adolescents and adults solve the limitation of child nondisclosure; however, this method has limitations such as recall biases and the lack of temporality criteria (Ball & Links, 2009).”
Method
Mechanisms of disturbed emotion processing and social interaction in borderline personality disorder: state of knowledge and research agenda of the German Clinical Research Unit
Schmahl, C., Herpertz, S. C., Bertsch, K., Ende, G., Flor, H., Kirsch, P., Lis, S., Meyer-Lindenberg, A., Rietschel, M., Schneider, M., et al. (2014) · Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation · doi:10.1186/2051-6673-1-12 · Cited by 168
Tests of a direct effect of childhood abuse on adult borderline personality disorder traits: A longitudinal discordant twin design.
Bornovalova, M. A., Huibregtse, B. M., Hicks, B. M., Keyes, M. A., McGue, M. K., & Iacono, W. G. (2012) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028328 · Cited by 170
“In cross-sectional studies using retrospective reports, 30% to 90% of BPD patients report childhood sexual, physical, or emotional abuse (Ball & Links, 2009; Bornovalova et al., 2006; Carlson et al., 2009; Golier et al., 2003; Laporte & Guttman, 1996; Zanarini, 2000).”
Background
A Multilevel Perspective on the Development of Borderline Personality Disorder
Fonagy, P., & Luyten, P. (2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy317 · Cited by 136
Conversion disorder: a problematic diagnosis
Nicholson, T. R., Stone, J., & Kanaan, R. (2010) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp.2008.171306 · Cited by 132
“42 In particular, personality disorders are associated with sexual abuse and dissociative symptoms 43 and are present at higher rates in patients with conversion disorder than neurological controls and could represent an important confounder.”
Background
Childhood maltreatment and its link to borderline personality disorder features in children: A systematic review approach
Ibrahim, J., Cosgrave, N., & Woolgar, M. (2017) · Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/1359104517712778 · Cited by 115
Comorbidity between Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Borderline Personality Disorder: A Review
Frías, Á., & Palma, C. (2015) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000363145 · Cited by 114
Emotion dysregulation as a mediator between childhood emotional abuse and current depression in a low-income African-American sample
Crow, T. M., Cross, D., Powers, A. D., & Bradley, B. (2014) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.05.015 · Cited by 115
From Child Maltreatment to Violent Offending
Topitzes, J., Mersky, J. P., & Reynolds, A. J. (2012) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260511433510 · Cited by 110
Common ground in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)–review of recent findings
Matthies, S. D., & Philipsen, A. (2014) · Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation · doi:10.1186/2051-6673-1-3 · Cited by 110
“A review of the literature concerning the association between traumatic experiences and development of BPD concludes that the data available to date are supportive of childhood trauma as an etiologic factor in BPD [42].”
Background
The link between rejection sensitivity and borderline personality disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Foxhall, M., Hamilton‐Giachritsis, C., & Button, K. (2019) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjc.12216 · Cited by 107
Inflammation, anxiety, and stress in bipolar disorder and borderline personality disorder: A narrative review
Saccaro, L. F., Schilliger, Z., Dayer, A. G., Perroud, N. A., & Piguet, C. (2021) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.04.017 · Cited by 109
Trauma and Dissociation: Implications for Borderline Personality Disorder
Vermetten, E. H. G. J. M., & Spiegel, D. (2014) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-013-0434-8 · Cited by 106
Emotional Vulnerability in Borderline Personality Disorder Is Cue Specific and Modulated by Traumatization
Limberg, A., Barnow, S., Freyberger, H. J., & Hamm, A. O. (2011) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.10.024 · Cited by 136
Borderline personality disorder: Disorder of trauma or personality, a review of the empirical literature.
MacIntosh, H. B., Godbout, N., & Dubash, N. (2015) · Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne · doi:10.1037/cap0000028 · Cited by 118
“…30% and 90% of BPD patients reported a history of CT including sexual, physical and emotional abuse, compared with 17–45% in the control groups (Ball & Links, 2009; Battle et al., 2004; Bornovalova, Gratz, Delany-Brumsey, Paulson, & Lejuez, 2006; Bouchard, Godbout, & Sabourin, 2009; Carlson,…”
Result
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis functioning in borderline personality disorder: A meta-analysis
Drews, E., Fertuck, E. A., Koenig, J., Kaess, M., & Arntz, A. R. (2018) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.11.008 · Cited by 106
Dissociation and emotion regulation in borderline personality disorder
Barnow, S., Limberg, A., Stopsack, M., Spitzer, C., Grabe, H. J., Freyberger, H. J., & Hamm, A. O. (2011) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291711001917 · Cited by 93
“…well as emotional neglect have been related to dissociation (Nijenhuis et al. 1998 ; Spitzer et al. 2006) and BPD has often been associated with childhood abuse and neglect (Zanarini et al. 2008 ; Ball & Links, 2009 ; Igarashi et al. 2010 ; Hong et al. 2011 ; for a review, see Barnow et al. 2010).”
Background
Rejection sensitivity and symptom severity in patients with borderline personality disorder: effects of childhood maltreatment and self-esteem
Bungert, M., Liebke, L., Thome, J., Haeussler, K., Bohus, M., & Lis, S. (2015) · Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation · doi:10.1186/s40479-015-0025-x · Cited by 92
“Early experiences of emotional neglect by primary caretakers are an important psychosocial risk factor for the development of BPD, and are one of the central features in the histories of BPD patients [23-25].”
Background
Borderline personality disorder and bipolar affective disorder. Spectra or spectre? A review
Bassett, D. L. (2012) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0004867411435289 · Cited by 94
“However, both disorders are associated with a significant incidence of childhood trauma (approximately 50% in bipolar disorder and 60–80% in borderline personality disorder) (Alvarez et al., 2011; Ball and Links, 2009; Conus et al., 2010; Etain et al., 2008; Fowke et al., 2011; Garno et al., 2005; Herman et al., 1989;…”
Background
Voxel-Based Morphometry in Women with Borderline Personality Disorder with and without Comorbid Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Niedtfeld I, I., Schulze, L., Krause-Utz, A., Demirakca, T., Bohus, M., & Schmahl, C. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0065824 · Cited by 84
The extent of dissociation in borderline personality disorder: A meta-analytic review
Scalabrini, A., Cavicchioli, M., Fossati, A., & Maffei, C. (2017) · Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1080/15299732.2016.1240738 · Cited by 86
“According to Ball and Links (2009), the link between dissociation and trauma is robust in both DDs and borderline personality disorder (BPD), and some authors have shown that the relationship between childhood trauma and BPD is quite convincing, particularly if the relationship is considered part…”
Background
Borderline personality features in childhood: The role of subtype, developmental timing, and chronicity of child maltreatment
Hecht, K. F., Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Crick, N. R. (2014) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579414000406 · Cited by 91
“805 A review of relevant literature by Ball and Links (2009) found support for childhood trauma as a causative factor in the development of BPD.”
Background
Childhood Trauma Affects Stress-Related Interoceptive Accuracy
Schaan, V. K., Schulz, A., Rubel, J. A., Bernstein, M., Domes, G., Schächinger, H., & Vögele, C. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00750 · Cited by 79
Distinguishing and Addressing Gender Minority Stress and Borderline Personality Symptoms
Goldhammer, H., Crall, C. S., & Keuroghlian, A. S. (2019) · Harvard Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/hrp.0000000000000234 · Cited by 85
Overlap of autism spectrum disorder and borderline personality disorder: A systematic review and meta‐analysis
May, T., Pilkington, P. D., Younan, R., & Williams, K. J. (2021) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2619 · Cited by 83
“Mentalisation based therapy teaches individuals to understand and differentiate their own thoughts and emotions from those around them (Bateman & Fonagy, 2004).”
Background
Structure of Genetic and Environmental Risk Factors for Symptoms ofDSM-IVBorderline Personality Disorder
Reichborn‐Kjennerud, T., Ystrøm, E., Neale, M. C., Aggen, S. H., Mazzeo, S. E., Knudsen, G. P., Tambs, K., Czajkowski, N. O., & Kendler, K. S. (2013) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.1944 · Cited by 76
Childhood trauma and functional disability in psychosis, bipolar disorder and borderline personality disorder: a review of the literature
Cotter, J., Kaess, M., & Yung, A. R. (2014) · Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/ipm.2014.74 · Cited by 71
“Childhood trauma in particular, has been identified as a potentially causal factor in the development of borderline personality disorder (Ball & Links, 2009) and has been linked to psychotic-like experiences in adolescence (Kelleher et al. 2008, 2013), and the development of full-threshold…”
Background
The endocrinology of human caregiving and its intergenerational transmission
Bos, P. A. (2016) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579416000973 · Cited by 71
“…a major risk factor for the development of psychopathology later in life such as anxiety and mood disorders (Heim & Nemeroff, 2001), schizophrenia (Morgan & Fisher, 2007), borderline personality disorder (BPD; Ball & Links, 2009), and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD; Berntsen et al., 2012).”
Background
Self-reported impulsivity in women with borderline personality disorder: the role of childhood maltreatment severity and emotion regulation difficulties
Krause-Utz, A., Erol, E., Brousianou, A. V., Cackowski, S., Paret, C., Ende, G., & Elzinga, B. M. (2019) · Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation · doi:10.1186/s40479-019-0101-8 · Cited by 81
The effect of childhood trauma on the severity of obsessive-compulsive symptoms: A systematic review
Destrée, L., Brierley, M., Albertella, L., Jobson, L., & Fontenelle, L. F. (2021) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.08.017 · Cited by 70
Relationship between childhood adversity and clinical and cognitive features in schizophrenia
McCabe, K., Maloney, E. A., Stain, H. J., Loughland, C. M., & Carr, V. J. (2012) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.01.023 · Cited by 68
Trauma, dissociation, and antiretroviral adherence among persons living with HIV/AIDS
Keuroghlian, A. S., Kamen, C. S., Neri, E., Lee, S. S., Liu, R., & Gore-Felton, C. E. (2011) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.05.003 · Cited by 62
“…have been shown to inhibit emotional, amygdala-based learning during classical conditioning by alteration of acquisition and extinction processes (Ebner-Priemer et al., 2009), and greater dissociation in this population has been related to poorer psychotherapy outcomes (Ball and Links, 2009).”
Demographic and mental health correlates of childhood emotional abuse and neglect in a Hong Kong sample
Fung, H. W., Chung, H. M., & Ross, C. A. (2019) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104288 · Cited by 60
Childhood Trauma and Psychosis
Dvir, Y., Denietolis, B., & Frazier, J. A. (2013) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.chc.2013.04.006 · Cited by 60
Social Judgement in Borderline Personality Disorder
Nicol, K., Pope, M., Sprengelmeyer, R., Young, A. W., & Hall, J. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0073440 · Cited by 58
“Measuring childhood trauma was of particular interest due to the strong association between childhood adversity and BPD [2,3].”
Background
Childhood maltreatment and transition to psychotic disorder independently predict long-term functioning in young people at ultra-high risk for psychosis
Yung, A. R., Cotter, J., Wood, S. J., McGorry, P. D., Thompson, A. D., Nelson, B., & Lin, A. P. (2015) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329171500135x · Cited by 57
“…and poor functioning Childhood maltreatment is associated with risk for a range of psychotic and non-psychotic disorders (Janssen et al. 2004; Ball & Links, 2009; Chen et al. 2010; Thompson et al. 2010; Varese et al. 2012) and is associated with poor functioning regardless of diagnosis…”
Background
Insecure attachment and maladaptive emotion regulation mediating the relationship between childhood trauma and borderline personality features
Peng, W., Liu, Z., Liu, Q., Chu, J., Zheng, K., Wang, J., Wei, H., Zhong, M., Ling, Y., & Yi, J. (2021) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.23082 · Cited by 56
“Childhood trauma has long been considered as an etiologic factor for BPD (Ball & Links, 2009; Herman, Perry, & Van der Kolk, 1989; Ibrahim, Cosgrave, & Woolgar, 2018).”
Background
A longitudinal twin study of borderline and antisocial personality disorder traits in early to middle adulthood
Reichborn‐Kjennerud, T., Czajkowski, N. O., Ystrøm, E., Ørstavik, R., Aggen, S. H., Tambs, K., Torgersen, S. O., Neale, M. C., Røysamb, E., Krueger, R. F., et al. (2015) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291715001117 · Cited by 66
“Although it is not clear if these associations represent a causal relationship (Ball & Links, 2009; Bornovalova et al. 2013b), it is possible that such childhood experiences have a lasting impact (Ehlert, 2013), and thus reflect the stable proportion of the environmental influences identified in…”
Background
Differentiating the bipolar disorders from borderline personality disorder
Bayes, A. J., McClure, G., Fletcher, K., del Moral, Y. R. R., Hadzi‐Pavlovic, D., Stevenson, J., Manicavasagar, V. L., & Parker, G. B. (2015) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.12509 · Cited by 58
“While (nonsexual) developmental trauma and parental rejection were univariate predictors of BPD status, as identified in other studies (36, 39), their impact was almost invariably removed in the multivariate analyses, suggesting a higher-order role for CSA.”
Result
How Do Stress Exposure and Stress Regulation Relate to Borderline Personality Disorder?
Bourvis, N., Aouidad, A., Cabelguen, C., Cohen, D., & Xavier, J. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02054 · Cited by 48
“When studied within this methodological frame, childhood trauma may be considered a cause of later BPD when included in a multifactor aetiological model that accounts for the lack of specificity and robustness of the statistical association (Ball and Links, 2009).”
Background
Development of the Offender Personality Disorder Pathway: A summary of the underpinning evidence
Skett, S., & Lewis, C. (2019) · Probation Journal · doi:10.1177/0264550519832370 · Cited by 52
“…which, in turn, has a long-term impact on how that individual develops, their core understanding of how the world is, their place within it, and their relationships with others (Ball and Links, 2009; Barnow et al., 2010; Glaser et al., 2010; Berenbaum et al., 2008; Van der Kolk et al., 1994).”
Background
Perimenstrual exacerbation of symptoms in borderline personality disorder: evidence from multilevel models and the Carolina Premenstrual Assessment Scoring System
Eisenlohr-Moul, T. A., Schmalenberger, K. M., Owens, S., Peters, J. R., Dawson, D. N., & Girdler, S. S. (2018) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291718001253 · Cited by 52
“First, stress exposure and vulnerability are relevant to the etiology of BPD (Lynam and Widiger, 2001; Ball and Links, 2009) and associated with hormone sensitivity (Gollenberg et al.”
Background
Relationships between childhood maltreatment, parenting style and borderline personality disorder criteria
Hernandez, A., Arntz, A., Gaviria, A. M., Labad, A., & Gutiérrez-Zotes, J. A. (2012) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi.2012.26.5.727 · Cited by 49
Co-morbidity of bipolar disorder and borderline personality disorder: Findings from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions
McDermid, J., Sareen, J., El-Gabalawy, R. M., Pagura, J., Spiwak, R. P., & Enns, M. W. (2015) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2015.01.004 · Cited by 56
Childhood maltreatment profile in a clinical population in China: a further analysis with existing data of an epidemiologic survey
Zhang, T. H., Chow, A., Wang, L. L., Yu, J. H., Dai, Y. F., Lu, X., Good, M.-J. D., Good, B. J., & Xiao, Z. P. (2013) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2013.03.014 · Cited by 44
“Our results are consistent with other studies [58, 59] that have examined the effects of child abuse on borderline PD.”
Result
Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-Short Form (CTQ-SF): Dimensionality, validity, reliability and gender invariance among Nigerian adolescents.
Aloba, O., Opakunle, T., & Ogunrinu, O. (2020) · International Journal of Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104357 · Cited by 43
Emotions and Memory in Borderline Personality Disorder
Winter, D., Elzinga, B. M., & Schmahl, C. G. (2013) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000356360 · Cited by 54
Attachment-Related Regulatory Processes Moderate the Impact of Adverse Childhood Experiences on Stress Reaction in Borderline Personality Disorder
Ehrenthal, J. C., Levy, K. N., Scott, L. N., & Granger, D. A. (2018) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi.2018.32.supp.93 · Cited by 52
“However, subsequent studies were not able to support this finding as particularly disorder-specific (for a discussion, see Ball & Links, 2009; Ford & Courtois, 2014; Fossati, Madeddu, & Maffei, 1999).”
Result
Childhood Traumatic Experiences and Dimensional Models of Personality Disorder in DSM-5 and ICD-11: Opportunities and Challenges
Back, S. N., Flechsenhar, A., Bertsch, K., & Zettl, M. (2021) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-021-01265-5 · Cited by 46
Rejection sensitivity as a mediator of the relationship between experienced rejection and borderline characteristics
Rosenbach, C., & Renneberg, B. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.05.032 · Cited by 53
Childhood trauma and personality disorder criterion counts: A co-twin control analysis.
Berenz, E. C., Amstadter, A. B., Aggen, S. H., Knudsen, G. P., Reichborn-Kjennerud, T., Gardner, C. O., & Kendler, K. S. (2013) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0034238 · Cited by 42
“For example, one review paper on CT in Borderline PD concluded that, “the evidence suggests that childhood trauma should be included in a multifactorial model of BPD” (Ball & Links, 2009).”
Background
Avoiding Misdiagnosis When Auditory Verbal Hallucinations Are Present in Borderline Personality Disorder
Beatson, J. A., Broadbear, J. H., Duncan, C., Bourton, D., & Rao, S. (2019) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0000000000001073 · Cited by 46
Childhood interpersonal trauma and its repercussions in adulthood: An analysis of psychological and interpersonal sequelae
Dugal, C., Bigras, N., Godbout, N., & Bélanger, C. (2016) · A Multidimensional Approach to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder - from Theory to Practice · doi:10.5772/64476 · Cited by 62
“Precisely, between 30 and 90% of individuals diagnosed with borderline personality disorder report having sustained childhood sexual, physical, or psychological abuse [88–90].”
Background
CSF 5-HIAA and exposure to and expression of interpersonal violence in suicide attempters
Moberg, T., Nordström, P., Forslund, K., Kristiansson, M., Åsberg, M., & Jokinen, J. (2011) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.01.018 · Cited by 39
Childhood Maltreatment, Borderline Personality Features, and Coping as Predictors of Intimate Partner Violence
Krause-Utz, A., Mertens, L. J., Renn, J. B., Lucke, P., Wöhlke, A. Z., van Schie, C. C., & Mouthaan, J. (2021) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260518817782 · Cited by 37
“…propose that complex interactions between genetic, neurobiological predispositions, and traumatic experiences underlie the development of BPD (Ball & Links, 2009; Battle et al., 2004; Golier et al., 2003; Herman et al., 1989; Pietrek, Elbert, Weierstall, Müller, & Rockstroh, 2013; Yen et…”
Background
Heart rate variability during a cognitive reappraisal task in female patients with borderline personality disorder: the role of comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and dissociation
Krause-Utz, A., Walther, J.-C., Lis, S., Schmahl, C., & Bohus, M. (2019) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291718002489 · Cited by 38
“Traumatic stress, including severe childhood maltreatment, is highly prevalent in BPD (Battle et al., 2004; Ball and Links, 2009), 30–80% of patients suffer from comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Zanarini et al., 1998; Zimmerman and Mattia, 1999; Grant et al., 2008; Pagura et al.,…”
Background
Childhood trauma, midbrain activation and psychotic symptoms in borderline personality disorder
Nicol, K., Pope, M., Romaniuk, L., & Hall, J. (2015) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/tp.2015.53 · Cited by 37
Evaluation of Narrative Exposure Therapy (NET) for Borderline Personality Disorder with Comorbid Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Pabst, A., Schauer, M., Bernhardt, K., Ruf‐Leuschner, M., Göder, R., Elbert, T. R., Rosentreager, R., Robjant, K., Aldenhoff, J. B., & Seeck-Hirschner, M. (2014) · KOPS (University of Konstanz) · Cited by 36
Rejection Sensitivity and Borderline Personality Disorder Features: The Mediating Roles of Attachment Anxiety, Need to Belong, and Self-Criticism
Sato, M., Fonagy, P., & Luyten, P. (2019) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi_2019_33_397 · Cited by 42
Violent offending in borderline personality disorder and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Sebastian, A., Retz, W., Tüscher, O., & Turner, D. (2019) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2019.03.008 · Cited by 35
The Mediating Role of Emotion Dysregulation in the Relations Between Childhood Trauma History and Adult Attachment and Borderline Personality Disorder Features: A Study of Italian Nonclinical Participants
Fossati, A., Gratz, K. L., Somma, A., Maffei, C., & Borroni, S. (2016) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi_2015_29_222 · Cited by 33
Impact of Childhood Maltreatment in Borderline Personality Disorder on Treatment Response to Intensive Dialectical Behavior Therapy
Euler, S., Stalujanis, E., Lindenmeyer, H. J., Nicastro, R., Kramer, U., Perroud, N. A., & Weibel, S. (2019) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi_2019_33_461 · Cited by 36
The mediating role of borderline personality features in the relationship between childhood trauma and psychotic-like experiences in a sample of help-seeking non-psychotic adolescents and young adults
Sengutta, M., Gawęda, Ł., Moritz, S., & Karow, A. (2018) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2018.11.009 · Cited by 37
“Similarly, the development of BPD is strongly related to childhood trauma [37] and it was suggested that childhood trauma could constitute an etiological factor for the development of BPD [25,38].”
Background
Exploring the links among borderline personality disorder symptoms, trauma, and pain in patients with chronic pain disorders
Johnson, B. N., Lumley, M. A., Cheavens, J. S., & McKernan, L. C. (2020) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2020.110164 · Cited by 32
“Considerable research supports the view that trauma (especially childhood sexual and emotional abuse) plays an important role, along with other biological and psychosocial risk factors, in the development of BPD (27-30).”
Background
Bipolar affective disorder and borderline personality disorder: Differentiation based on the history of early life stress and psychoneuroendocrine measures
Mazer, A. K., Cleare, A. J., Young, A. H., & Juruena, M. F. (2018) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2018.04.015 · Cited by 32
“Evidence from the literature demonstrates a positive association between early life stress (ELS) and the development of both BPD and BD [22-25].”
Anxious adult attachment may mediate the relationship between childhood emotional abuse and borderline personality disorder
Frías, Á., Palma, C., Farriols, N., Gonzalez, L., & Horta, A. (2016) · Personality and Mental Health · doi:10.1002/pmh.1348 · Cited by 32
Hallucinations et trouble de personnalité borderline : une revue de littérature
Gras, A., Amad, A., Thomas, P., & Jardri, R. (2014) · L Encéphale · doi:10.1016/j.encep.2014.07.002 · Cited by 31
Psychometric Properties of the Chinese Version of the Brief Borderline Symptom List in Undergraduate Students and Clinical Patients
Yang, H., Lei, X., Zhong, M., Zhou, Q., Ling, Y., Jungkunz, M., & Yi, J. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00605 · Cited by 30
Reciprocal processes in trauma and coping: Bidirectional effects over a four-year period.
Jenzer, T., Meisel, S. N., Blayney, J. A., Colder, C. R., & Read, J. P. (2019) · Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy · doi:10.1037/tra0000500 · Cited by 30
“A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript Discussion Trauma can have devastating effects on mental health and functioning (Dulin & Passmore, 2010; Hovens et al., 2010; Ball & Links, 2009).”
Background
The impact of personality disorders and personality traits on psychotherapy treatment outcome of eating disorders: A systematic review
Simpson, S., Azam, F., Brown, S., Hronis, A., & Brockman, R. N. (2021) · Personality and Mental Health · doi:10.1002/pmh.1533 · Cited by 31
Testing the biosocial model of borderline personality disorder: Results of a prospective 5‐year longitudinal study
Arens, E. A., Grabe, H.-J., Spitzer, C., & Barnow, S. (2010) · Personality and Mental Health · doi:10.1002/pmh.143 · Cited by 35
Similarities between Borderline Personality Disorder and Post traumatic Stress Disorder: evidence from Resting-State Meta-Analysis
Amad, A., Raduà, J., Vaïva, G., Williams, S., & Fovet, T. (2019) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.07.018 · Cited by 30
Relationship of self-mutilative behaviours with severity of borderline personality, childhood trauma and impulsivity in male substance-dependent inpatients
Evren, C., Cinar, O., Evren, B., & Çelik, S. (2012) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2012.03.017 · Cited by 29
“Both BPD (Ball and Links, 2009) and SUDs (Evren et al.”
Background
Impact of infant crying on mothers with a diagnosis of borderline personality disorder: A qualitative study
Geerling, I., Roberts, R., & Williams, A. S. (2019) · Infant Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1002/imhj.21776 · Cited by 30
Reductions in Whole-body Ownership in Borderline Personality Disorder – A Phenomenological Manifestation of Dissociation
Löffler, A., Kleindienst, N., Cackowski, S., Schmidinger, I., & Bekrater‐Bodmann, R. (2019) · Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1080/15299732.2019.1678213 · Cited by 30
“Additionally, we included reports of childhood trauma which has been shown being a causal predictor for the development of BPD psychopathology (Ball & Links, 2009).”
Background
Trauma and Outcomes of Mentalization-Based Therapy for Individuals With Borderline Personality Disorder
Smits, M. L., Luyten, P., Feenstra, D. J., Bales, D. L., Kamphuis, J. H., Dekker, J., Verheul, R., & Busschbach, J. J. V. (2022) · American Journal of Psychotherapy · doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.20210027 · Cited by 34
A Developmental Psychopathology and Neurobiological Model of Borderline Personality Disorder in Adolescence
Ensink, K., Biberdzic, M., Normandin, L., & Clarkin, J. F. (2015) · Journal of Infant Child and Adolescent Psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/15289168.2015.1007715 · Cited by 32
“Abuse, neglect and childhood maltreatment are widely recognized to be important risk factors for the development of BPD in adults (Ball & Links, 2009), young adults (Widom, Czaja, & Paris, 2009), adolescents (Horesh, Ratner, Laor, & Toren, 2008; Horesh, Sever, & Apter, 2003; Venta,…”
Background
Distinguishing Among Symptoms of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Complex Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and Borderline Personality Disorder in a Community Sample of Women
Cyr, G., Godbout, N., Cloître, M., & Bélanger, C. (2021) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.22719 · Cited by 35
“In addition, although no research has yet established a causal association between trauma exposure and BPD (Ball & Links, 2009), up to 97% of BPD patients report having experienced childhood trauma (Temes et al., 2017).”
Background
Inconsistency and social decision making in patients with Borderline Personality Disorder
Preuss, N., Brändle, L. S., Hager, O. M., Haynes, M., Fischbacher, U., & Hasler, G. (2016) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.06.017 · Cited by 25
Self–other distinction and borderline personality disorder features: Evidence for egocentric and altercentric bias in a self–other facial morphing task.
Meulemeester, C. D., Lowyck, B., Panagiotopoulou, E., Fotopoulou, A., & Luyten, P. (2020) · Personality Disorders Theory Research and Treatment · doi:10.1037/per0000415 · Cited by 23
“Indeed, individuals with BPD typically show high levels of attachment insecurity (Agrawal, Gunderson, Holmes, & Lyons-Ruth, 2004) and childhood trauma (Ball & Links, 2009), pointing towards disrupted caregiver-infant attunement.”
Background
Specific Pathways From Adverse Experiences to BPD in Adolescence: A Criteria-Based Approach of Trauma
Robin, M., Douniol, M., Pham‐Scottez, A., Gicquel, L., Delvenne, V., Nezelof, S., Speranza, M., Falissard, B., Silva, J., & Corcos, M. (2021) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi_2021_35_523 · Cited by 26
Out of touch? How trauma shapes the experience of social touch – Neural and endocrine pathways
Stevens, L., Bregulla, M., & Scheele, D. (2024) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105595 · Cited by 28
“…al., 2015; Negele et al., 2015 for reviews; O ’ Donnell et al., 2004), substance abuse disorders (see Brady et al., 2004 for a review; Farley et al., 2004; Min et al., 2007; Triffleman et al., 1995), and borderline personality disorder (see Ball and Links, 2009 for a review; Golier et al., 2003).”
Background
Smaller stress-sensitive hippocampal subfields in women with borderline personality disorder without posttraumatic stress disorder
Bøen, E., Westlye, L. T., Elvsåshagen, T., Hummelen, B., Hol, P. K., Boye, B., Andersson, S., Karterud, S., & Malt, U. F. (2014) · Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience · doi:10.1503/jpn.130070 · Cited by 24
“Our findings also suggest that reductions in the DGCA4 and CA2–3 subfield volumes are main contributors to the reductions in total hippocampal volume reported in previous studies of patients with BPD.”
BackgroundInfluential
Structural Features Predict Sexual Trauma and Interpersonal Problems in Borderline Personality Disorder but Not in Controls: A Multi-Voxel Pattern Analysis
Dadomo, H., Salvato, G., Lapomarda, G., Ciftci, Z., Messina, I., & Grecucci, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2022.773593 · Cited by 24
“These traumatic events have a specific effect on the subject’s behavior and accurately predicts the symptom class observed in the borderline patients such as affective and interpersonal dysfunctionalities, which negatively impact on their relationships (Ball and Links, 2009).”
Background
Cholesterol and the “Cycle of Violence” in attempted suicide
Asellus, P., Nordström, P., Nordström, A., & Jokinen, J. (2014) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2014.01.009 · Cited by 26
“Abused children do present an increased risk of later suicide attempts, suicide, aggressive behaviour and development of personality disorders (Klomek et al., 2009, Ball and Links, 2009, Jokinen et al., 2010).”
A preliminary study of the clinical differences between dissociative and nondissociative depression in Hong Kong: implications for mental health practice
Fung, H. W., & Chan, C. (2019) · Social Work in Health Care · doi:10.1080/00981389.2019.1597006 · Cited by 24
“It should be noted that BPD symptoms are highly related to trauma (Ball & Links, 2009; Lewis &Grenyer, 2009), and that currently there are no effective pharmaceutical treatments to target such psychosocial symptoms of BPD (Goodman, Vail, West, New, & Siever, 2007).”
Background
The Social Psychology of Trauma
Muldoon, O. T. (2024) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009306997 · Cited by 23
Early maladaptive schemas as common and specific predictors of skin picking subtypes
Pozza, A., Albert, U., & Dèttore, D. (2020) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-020-0392-y · Cited by 23
Continuity between waking life and dreams of psychiatric patients A review and discussion of the implications for dream research
Skancke, J. F., Holsen, I., & Schredl, M. (2014) · International journal of dream research · doi:10.11588/ijodr.2014.1.12184 · Cited by 26
The Social-Cognitive Basis of Personality Disorders: Commentary on the Special Issue
Herpertz, S. C. (2013) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi.2013.27.1.113 · Cited by 22
Bullying and childhood trauma events as predictive factors of suicidal behavior in borderline personality disorder: Preliminary findings
Alberdi‐Páramo, Í., Sáiz-González, M. D., Díaz‐Marsá, M., & Carrasco‐Perera, J. L. (2019) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2019.112730 · Cited by 24
Linking experiences of child sexual abuse to adult sexual intimate partner violence: the role of borderline personality features, maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation, and dissociation
Krause-Utz, A., Dierick, T., Josef, T., Chatzaki, E., Willem, A., Hoogenboom, J., & Elzinga, B. M. (2021) · Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation · doi:10.1186/s40479-021-00150-0 · Cited by 28
Childhood trauma and borderline personality disorder traits: A discordant twin study.
Skaug, E., Czajkowski, N. O., Waaktaar, T., & Torgersen, S. O. (2022) · Journal of Psychopathology and Clinical Science · doi:10.1037/abn0000755 · Cited by 21

Authors: Ball, J. S., & Links, P. S.
Affiliations: St. Michael's Hospital (CA)
Corresponding author: Ball, Jeffrey S.
ORCID: Ball, Jeffrey S.
Links, Paul S.
Venue: Current Psychiatry Reports
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2009-01-22
Volume: 11
Issue: 1
Pages: 63-68
ISSN: 1523-3812 (ISSN-L)
1535-1645
DOI: 10.1007/s11920-009-0010-4
OpenAlex: W1994608326
Cited by: 320
References: 53
Citations by year: 2026: 10 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 26 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 22 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 22 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 17 · 2012: 10
FWCI: 1.21
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
Locations: Current Psychiatry Reports (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Disorders and Psychopathology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research
Keywords: borderline personality disorder, childhood trauma, causal relationship, etiology, multifactorial etiology, quality of evidence
MeSH terms: Adult, Borderline Personality Disorder, Brain, Child, Child Abuse, Child Abuse, Sexual, Cross-Sectional Studies, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Life Change Events, Object Attachment, Risk Factors, Self Concept, Causality

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Borderline personality disorder and childhood trauma: Evidence for a causal relationship

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks