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Cited by 0Mindfulness and Compassion InterventionsFunctional Brain Connectivity StudiesTranscranial Magnetic Stimulation Studies

Frontal Electroencephalography Asymmetry and Desynchronized Functional Connectivity Associated with Long-Term and Short-Term Breathing Training

Open access
Ng, Hei-Yin Hydra, Hsu, Ai-Ling, Wu, Changwei W., Huang, Chih-Mao, Chao, Yi-Ping, Jung, Tzyy-Ping, Chuang, Chun-Hsiang·2026·Mindfulness
DOI 10.1007/s12671-025-02734-1
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Abstract

Objectives Breathing training is a common intervention in self-help training and mindfulness practices. The positive effects on mental health are likely because of the development of emotion regulation. Neuroscientific evidence has shown that emotion regulation can be based on approach or withdrawal motivation, characterized by neurological frontal asymmetry. This study examined the role of emotion regulation in long- versus short-term breathing training with electroencephalography-based asymmetric frontal functional connectivity and spectral power evidence in two studies. Study 1 investigated the long-term effects of an 8-week mindfulness training. Study 2 explored neural changes associated with two common breathing training styles: passive guided breathing and active breath counting. Method Study 1 analyzed data from 31 participants (mindfulness group n = 17, control group n = 14) who either completed the 8-week mindfulness training or served as controls to examine the neural long-term effects. Study 2 involved 51 participants in a cross-sectional experiment after practicing different breathing training styles, which were delivered through a virtual reality platform. We calculated atlas-based functional connectivity and evaluated differences between long and short term. Results Study 1 revealed that the long-term breathing training practitioners exhibited significantly reduced delta and alpha functional connectivity, mainly in the left frontal region. Study 2 found that participants practicing breath counting exhibited significantly reduced gamma functional connectivity in the left frontal region. Conclusions The prominence of left frontal functional connectivity highlights the involvement of approach motivation in emotion regulation during breathing practices. This study underscores the potential for short-term breathing training and digital platforms for practical applications in mindfulness and emotion regulation. Preregistration Study 1 was not preregistered. Study 2 was registered in ClinicalTrials.gov (Number: NCT06656741; https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT06656741 ).

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In two EEG studies, long-term mindfulness/breathing training and short-term breath counting were associated with reduced left frontal functional connectivity, interpreted as approach-motivated emotion regulation. Study 1 found reduced delta and alpha connectivity after 8 weeks; Study 2 found reduced gamma connectivity in breath counting versus guided breathing.

Key findings

  • Study 1: the 8-week mindfulness group (n = 17) improved emotion regulation on the DERS (t(16) = −2.14, p < 0.05, d = −0.51), while waitlist controls (n = 14) did not (t(13) = 0.76, p = 0.46, d = 0.20). Post- versus pretest EEG showed significantly reduced delta and alpha functional connectivity, mainly in the left frontal region; no significant theta, beta, or gamma connectivity findings were reported, but the mindfulness group showed a global gamma power increase (p-values < 0.05).
  • Study 2: among 51 young adults, breath counting versus guided breathing showed significantly reduced gamma functional connectivity in the left frontal region to left temporal and left parietal regions and to right prefrontal, frontal, and parietal regions; the right prefrontal region also showed reduced interhemispheric gamma connectivity. Breath counting showed higher global delta and theta power and higher alpha power in right parietal/temporal and bilateral occipital/cingulate regions; no significant gamma spectral power changes were found.
  • Across both studies, the authors highlight left frontal functional connectivity decreases as a prominent pattern, linking breathing training to approach motivation and emotion regulation, and suggesting breath counting may produce neural effects similar to long-term training.

Methods

  • Study 1 was an 8-week longitudinal mindfulness intervention: participants were randomly assigned to mindfulness training or waitlist control, completed resting-state EEG and the DERS before and after, and were analyzed with paired t-tests plus FDR correction. EEG used a 32-electrode MR-compatible system, LCMV beamforming, the Desikan-Killiany atlas (68 ROIs grouped into 14 regions), and MIM functional connectivity and spectral power.
  • Study 2 was a single-session, cross-sectional VR experiment with 51 participants (26 men, 25 women; mean age = 22.7 ± 2.5 years) who had no prior mindfulness or breathing training. Participants completed two counterbalanced 6-min conditions—guided breathing and breath counting—while EEG, heartbeat, and respiration were recorded; analyses used the same ROIconnect/MIM pipeline as Study 1, with FDR correction.
  • Frequency bands were delta 1–4 Hz, theta 4–8 Hz, alpha 8–12 Hz, low beta 12–20 Hz, high beta 20–30 Hz, and gamma 30–50 Hz; Study 1 excluded frequencies above 40 Hz because of MRI gradient artifact risk. Study 1 was not preregistered; Study 2 was registered in ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT06656741).

Limitations

  • The paper states that Study 1 had a relatively small sample and participants were predominantly female; the authors also state they did not focus on the association between behavioral and EEG data (e.g., they did not regress DERS on MIM values).
  • The authors state concern about the validity of cingulate-region data because scalp EEG may not reliably represent deeper sources, and they note that atlas choice may matter, encouraging future use of alternative atlases.
  • Evident from the design: Study 1 used a waitlist rather than active control, and Study 2 was cross-sectional/single-session, so short-term effects cannot be assumed to translate directly into long-term outcomes; the paper also reports FDR-corrected results while providing uncorrected results in figures for reference.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1007/s12671-025-02734-1

Cites

64 of 64 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

26 of 58 cited sources checked · 11 supported · 2 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Findingown data

    The authors did not observe alpha power asymmetry as previously reported.

    “We did not observe alpha power asymmetry as previously reported (Dziembowska et al., 2016;Telles et al., 2017).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Dziembowska et al., 2016 source
    • cites Telles et al., 2017 source

      The citation presents Telles et al. as a prior report of alpha-power asymmetry. Its Discussion and Conclusions instead say that alternate-nostril breathing did not change cerebral hemisphere symmetry or asymmetry; the reported alpha-amplitude decrease occurred during quiet sitting, not as a left–right asymmetry finding. The citing authors’ own failure to observe asymmetry cannot be assessed from this source. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Low frequency spectral power increased in breathing training practitioners.

    “The results of breath counting aligned with the previous studies that low frequency spectral power increased in the breathing training practitioners (Dziembowska et al., 2016;Isbel et al., 2019;Telles et al., 2017)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Dziembowska et al., 2016 source
    • cites Isbel et al., 2019 source
    • cites Telles et al., 2017 source

      The Results (Post-hoc analyses with Bonferroni adjustment; page unavailable) report that theta-band energy, a low-frequency EEG measure, significantly decreased during alternate nostril yoga breathing. The Discussion likewise describes decreased relative theta power, rather than the claimed increase. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    This approach contains considerable spatial bias as EEG electrodes originally collected mixed signals from multiple brain sources.

    “However, this approach contains considerable spatial bias as EEG electrodes originally collected mixed signals from multiple brain sources (Luck, 2014;Pellegrini et al., 2023).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Luck, 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Pellegrini et al., 2023 source
  • Premisecitation

    Functional connectivity in the DMN is negatively correlated with mindfulness scores of mindful breathing practitioners.

    “According to the findings, functional connectivity in the DMN is negatively correlated with that of the salience network (Doll et al., 2015), other brain neural networks (Josipovic et al., 2011), and the mindfulness scores of mindful breathing practitioners (Garrison et al., 2015).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Garrison et al., 2015 source

      The Methods (fMRI protocol) include breath-focused meditation, and the Discussion mentions prior findings of altered DMN functional connectivity in meditators. But the Results report group differences in DMN activity, not a negative correlation between connectivity and mindfulness scores. Searches for mindfulness scores and connectivity correlations found no passage establishing the claimed relationship. (LLM, conf=0.77)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    The frontal region is a part of the default mode network.

    “The frontal region is a part of the default mode network (DMN), which characterizes the resting state of individuals (Fox et al., 2014;Ramirez-Barrantes et al., 2019).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Fox et al., 2014 source
    • cites Ramirez-Barrantes et al., 2019 source
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 41
  • May combine two claims. 21

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Breathing training includes different styles, such as mindful breathing, tempo breathing, and counting breath cycles.

    “Breathing training includes different styles, such as mindful breathing (Fjorback et al., 2011), tempo breathing (Lukic et al., 2022), and counting breath cycles (Shuai et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Fjorback et al., 2011 source
    • cites Lukic et al., 2022 source
    • cites Shuai et al., 2020 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Breathing training is considered beneficial to the positive spirals of positive appraisals and emotion.

    “breathing training is considered beneficial to the positive spirals of positive appraisals and emotion (Garland et al., 2015;Tamir et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Garland et al., 2015 source

      The Introduction (page unavailable) describes breathing as one possible focus of attention during mindfulness meditation. The Discussion (page unavailable) suggests that mindfulness training might stimulate upward spirals of positive affect and cognition, but the paper does not establish that breathing training on its own has this benefit. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Tamir et al., 2020 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Behavioral evidence showed that breathing training promotes trainees' tendency to recall positive emotion, which contributed to better psychological well-being.

    “Behavioral evidence showed that breathing training promotes trainees' tendency to recall positive emotion, which contributed to better psychological well-being in return (Roberts-Wolfe et al., 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Roberts-Wolfe et al., 2012 source

      The Methods describe a 12-week mindfulness course that included attention to the breath, but not breathing training alone. The Results and Conclusion report greater positive-word recall and psychological well-being than in active controls, with the two changes associated. The paper suggests that changed emotional processing may improve well-being; it does not establish that increased recall caused the improvement. Page numbers are not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Tempo breathing asks people to inhale for 4 s, hold their breath for 1 s, and exhale for 5 s.

    “Tempo breathing asks people to inhale for 4 s, hold their breath for 1 s, and exhale for 5 s (Lukic et al., 2022).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lukic et al., 2022 source

      The Methods (Design and Implementation; page not provided) specify 4 seconds of inhalation, a 1-second pause, and 5 seconds of exhalation at Breeze 2’s standard setting of 6 breaths per minute. The paper does not identify this as “Tempo breathing,” and the durations change when users select a different breathing rate. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Breath counting requires practitioners to count their breath cycles.

    “Finally, breath counting requires practitioners to count their breath cycles (Shuai et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Shuai et al., 2020 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Pellegrini et al. (2023) launched the ROIconnect toolbox, which aggregates electrode data into region-based data and calculates connectivity between brain regions.

    “To address these issues, Pellegrini et al. (2023) launched the ROIconnect toolbox, which aggregates electrode data into region-based data and calculates connectivity between brain regions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pellegrini et al., 2023 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    A rising approach of EEG data handling is to aggregate electrode data into physiologically pre-defined brain regions (ROIs).

    “A rising approach of EEG data handling is to aggregate the electrode data into physiologically pre-defined brain regions (or region of interest, ROI) (Basti et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Basti et al., 2020 source

      Section 5.2 describes projecting MEG sensor data into anatomically defined cortical ROIs and discusses ROIs in source-reconstructed MEG/EEG data. It does not describe aggregating EEG electrode data into ROIs or establish that this is a rising approach; it also cautions that simple averaging of source-reconstructed MEG/EEG signals is inappropriate. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    VR and BF demonstrated effectiveness in reducing anxiety.

    “Integrated VR and BF technology has been increasingly applied to self-help healthcare training (Yu et al., 2018), demonstrating effectiveness in reducing stress levels (Rockstroh et al., 2021), anxiety (Gaggioli et al., 2014), and self-reported pain (Prabhu et al., 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gaggioli et al., 2014 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    VR and BF demonstrated effectiveness in reducing stress levels.

    “Integrated VR and BF technology has been increasingly applied to self-help healthcare training (Yu et al., 2018), demonstrating effectiveness in reducing stress levels (Rockstroh et al., 2021), anxiety (Gaggioli et al., 2014), and self-reported pain (Prabhu et al., 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rockstroh et al., 2021 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    IC-U-Net is an end-to-end EEG denoising solution with high accuracy and reliability.

    “IC-U-Net is an end-to-end EEG denoising solution with high accuracy and reliability.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Chuang et al., 2022 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Breathing training is correlated with positive cognition.

    “Researchers suggested breathing training correlated with positive cognition (Garland et al., 2015;Tamir et al., 2020)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Garland et al., 2015 source

      The Discussion reports that mindfulness-based cognitive therapy was associated with increased positive thought appraisal in participants whose depression was partially remitted. The Introduction describes attention to breathing as one possible element of mindfulness meditation, but the paper does not establish an association between breathing training specifically and positive cognition. Page numbers are not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Tamir et al., 2020 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Breathing training practitioners had lower self-reference and mind-wandering, which were desirable outcomes of breathing training.

    “A proposed reason for the phenomenon was that breathing training practitioners had lower self-reference and mind-wandering (Berkovich-Ohana et al., 2014), which were desirable outcomes of breathing training.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Berkovich-Ohana et al., 2014 source

      The Gamma band section reports lower resting-state EEG connectivity in long-term mindfulness meditators than in controls and interprets it as possibly indicating less self-reference and mind-wandering. The Methods identify the participants as Theravada mindfulness practitioners, not breathing-training practitioners; the psychological outcomes were inferred from EEG rather than directly established. The claim therefore changes the training type and states a tentative interpretation as a finding. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    VR and BF successfully enhanced breathing training.

    “Furthermore, VR and BF successfully enhanced breathing training (Brammer et al., 2021;Rockstroh et al., 2021).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Brammer et al., 2021 source

      In ‘Challenge 1: Choice of the Biofeedback Parameter > Prioritizing Controllability’ (page unavailable), the pilot data show lower breathing rates and higher biofeedback scores in sessions with biofeedback, as well as improvement across sessions. This supports a benefit from biofeedback in the VR training, but the paper describes the findings as suggestive and does not isolate whether VR itself enhanced breathing training. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Rockstroh et al., 2021 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Breathing training interventions are typically considered a long-term process that demands time and practice.

    “Typically, breathing training interventions are considered a long-term process that demands time and practice (Kabat-Zinn, 1994;Zaccaro et al., 2018).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kabat-Zinn, 1994

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Zaccaro et al., 2018 source

      The Results (Study selection and characteristics; page unavailable) include interventions lasting many sessions or 150 days, so the review does cover breathing practice over time. But the same table also includes interventions lasting only 1–20 minutes, and the Introduction (Objectives and research question; page unavailable) considers effects during or immediately after breathing alongside long-term effects. The paper does not establish that breathing training is typically a long-term process or that it demands extended practice. (LLM, conf=0.78)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Left frontal phase synchronization in the gamma band was associated with cognitive reappraisal tendency upon people watching different emotional stimuli.

    “Also, the left frontal phase synchronization in the gamma band was associated with cognitive reappraisal tendency (which was essential to the positive cognitive spiral of emotion regulation) upon people watching different emotional stimuli (Kang et al., 2012(Kang et al., , 2014)).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kang et al., 2012 source
    • cites Kang et al., 2014 source

      The Results (Gamma phase synchrony; page unavailable) report increased gamma phase synchronization across the brain during cognitive reappraisal. The Abstract distinguishes that whole-brain synchronization from left frontal gamma power. The paper therefore supports an association with reappraisal during emotional-picture viewing, but not the claim that phase synchronization was specifically left frontal or associated with a person's reappraisal tendency. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Study 1, the participants in the mindfulness intervention group showed a global gamma power increase (p-values < 0.05), but not in the delta or alpha bands.

    “In Study 1, the participants in the mindfulness intervention group showed a global gamma power increase (p-values < 0.05), but not in the delta or alpha bands.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Right parietal and occipital regions showed lower intra-hemispheric functional connectivity after the intervention, whereas other right brain regions did not.

    “The right parietal and occipital regions showed lower intra-hemispheric functional connectivity after the intervention, whereas the other right brain regions did not.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Long-term breathing training showed a connectivity decrease in the alpha band, whereas breath counting showed a connectivity decrease in the gamma band.

    “Still, a discrepancy was that the long-term breathing training showed a connectivity decrease in the alpha band, whereas breath counting showed a connectivity decrease in the gamma band.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Both breath counting and long-term breathing training showed left frontal functional connectivity decreases in the authors' MIM results of Study 2.

    “Our MIM results of Study 2 further supported this claim that both breath counting and long-term breathing training showed the left frontal functional connectivity decreases”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Gamma power increased after breathing training in the authors' study, agreeing with a previous electrode-based breathing training study.

    “Notably, our results of gamma power increase agreed with a previous electrode-based breathing training study (Ng et al., 2021).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ng et al., 2021

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Both long-term and short-term breathing training reduce functional connectivity in the left frontal region.

    “Overall, this work provided evidence from two studies, showing that both long-term and short-term breathing training reduce functional connectivity in the left frontal region.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Study 1 was not preregistered.

    “Study 1 was not preregistered.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Study 2 was registered in ClinicalTrials.gov (Number: NCT06656741).

    “Study 2 was registered in ClinicalTrials.gov(Number: NCT06656741;”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The reliability of DERS in Study 1 was good, α = 0.96 and 0.95 in pretest and posttest respectively.

    “The reliability of DERS in our Study 1 was good, α = 0.96 and 0.95 in pretest and posttest respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Participants were randomly assigned to the mindfulness intervention or waitlist control group.

    “We randomly assigned participants to the mindfulness intervention or waitlist control group.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning

    Whether frontal lateralization reflects long- or short-term effects is unclear.

    “Furthermore, whether this lateralization reflects long-or short-term effects is unclear.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The waitlist control group was instructed to abstain from any mindfulness practices, breathing exercises, or related activities.

    “The participants in the waitlist control group followed the same EEG scanning protocol but were instructed to abstain from any mindfulness practices, breathing exercises, or related activities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Mindful breathing emphasizes nonjudgmental awareness of body sensations and asks practitioners to focus their breathing sensations on the present moment.

    “Mindful breathing emphasizes nonjudgmental awareness of body sensations and asks practitioners to focus their breathing sensations on the present moment (Fjorback et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fjorback et al., 2011 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Integrated VR and BF technology has been increasingly applied to self-help healthcare training.

    “Integrated VR and BF technology has been increasingly applied to self-help healthcare training (Yu et al., 2018), demonstrating effectiveness in reducing stress levels (Rockstroh et al., 2021), anxiety (Gaggioli et al., 2014), and self-reported pain (Prabhu et al., 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yu et al., 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    This active and intentional focus aligns with approach motivation.

    “This active and intentional focus aligns with approach motivation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Breathing training styles generally have no obvious goal or motive.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    Frequencies above 40 Hz were excluded from further analysis as they are prone to contamination by MR gradient-induced artifacts.

    “However, frequencies above 40 Hz were excluded from further analysis, as they are prone to contamination by MR gradientinduced artifacts (Solana et al., 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Solana et al., 2014 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Overall, the findings identified a trend whereby the prefrontal, frontal, and cingulate regions formed one cluster, and the central, parietal, temporal, and occipital regions formed another cluster.

    “Overall, the findings identified a trend whereby the prefrontal, frontal, and cingulate regions formed one cluster, and the central, parietal, temporal, and occipital regions formed another cluster.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    All statistical analyses incorporated false discovery rate (FDR) correction to control for multiple comparisons.

    “All statistical analyses incorporated false discovery rate (FDR) correction to control for multiple comparisons.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Frontal EEG asymmetry can be measured during a resting session, described as a personality trait, or during a task, described as a state.

    “Frontal EEG asymmetry can be measured during a resting session, and therefore described as a personality trait, or during a task, and thus described as a state (Coan & Allen, 2003;Reznik & Allen, 2018).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Coan & Allen, 2003

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Reznik & Allen, 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The left frontal region is predominantly associated with approach motivation and approach-related emotions (e.g., hope, happiness, excitement, and anger).

    “Research suggested that the left frontal region was predominantly associated with approach motivation and approach-related emotions (e.g., hope, happiness, excitement, and anger) (Harmon-Jones, 2003).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Harmon-Jones, 2003 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Previous studies on frontal EEG asymmetry typically used symmetric electrode pairs to assess frontal asymmetry, with some relying on only one pair of electrodes.

    “Previous studies on frontal EEG asymmetry typically used symmetric electrode pairs to assess frontal asymmetry (Isbel et al., 2019;Ng et al., 2023), with some relying on only one pair of electrodes (Dziembowska et al., 2016;Telles et al., 2017;Zhou & Liu, 2016).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Isbel et al., 2019 source
    • cites Ng et al., 2023

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Dziembowska et al., 2016 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    VR and BF demonstrated effectiveness in reducing self-reported pain.

    “Integrated VR and BF technology has been increasingly applied to self-help healthcare training (Yu et al., 2018), demonstrating effectiveness in reducing stress levels (Rockstroh et al., 2021), anxiety (Gaggioli et al., 2014), and self-reported pain (Prabhu et al., 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Prabhu et al., 2019 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The left frontal functional connectivity decreases suggest left frontal isolation from the DMN and the focus of the positive cognitive spiral.

    “suggesting the left frontal isolation from DMN and the focus of positive cognitive spiral”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Study 2 should have different results than the resting state data of Study 1 because the EEG scans in Study 2 were made during two breathing training sessions.

    “The EEG scans in Study 2 were made during two breathing training sessions, and therefore Study 2 should have different results than the resting state data of Study 1.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Desynchronization of the left frontal region suggests that breathing training practitioners had the ability to resist other disturbances and focused on the positive cognitive spiral, thereby promoting emotion regulation.

    “The desynchronization of the left frontal region might suggest that breathing training practitioners had the ability to resist other disturbances and focused on the positive cognitive spiral, and thereby promoted emotion regulation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Breathing training reduced the integration of the left frontal region with the default mode network (DMN).

    “A plausible explanation is that breathing training reduced the integration of the left frontal region with the DMN.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The first 1-min segment was excluded from each 6-min recording to focus on EEG data that reflected a stable mental state.

    “To focus on EEG data that reflected a stable mental state, we excluded the first 1-min segment from each 6-min recording.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Positive cognition is predominantly associated with the left frontal region.

    “which was predominantly associated with the left frontal region (Harmon-Jones, 2003)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Harmon-Jones, 2003 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    A possible reason for not observing alpha power asymmetry is that the EEG data in Study 1 were scanned during a resting state, whereas participants in previous studies were actively engaging in breathing trainings or tasks during EEG scans.

    “A possible reason was that our EEG data in Study 1 was scanned during a resting state, and the participants in the previous studies were actively engaging in different breathing trainings or tasks during the EEG scans.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    A plausible reason for the discrepancy is that breath counting was an active task that required the participants' full attention, which was related to gamma activity.

    “As we mentioned in the spectral power discussion, a plausible reason was that breath counting was an active task that required the participants' full attention, which was related to gamma activity (Fitzgibbon et al., 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fitzgibbon et al., 2004 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The experimental sequence was counterbalanced.

    “The experimental sequence was counterbalanced.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    ROI-based analysis provided accurate spatial interpretation.

    “As the ROI-based analysis provided accurate spatial interpretation, we could examine the frontal asymmetry phenomenon in breathing training.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Functional connectivity analysis was limited to the prefrontal, frontal, parietal, central, and temporal regions because Study 1 suggested these brain regions were most involved in long-term breathing training.

    “In this study, we limited our functional connectivity analysis to the prefrontal, frontal, parietal, central, and temporal regions because the results of Study 1 suggested that these brain regions were most involved in long-term breathing training.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The increase of low frequency spectral power might represent a more relaxed mental state, which was an intended outcome of breathing training.

    “Theoretically, the increase of low frequency spectral power might represent a more relaxed mental state, which was an intended outcome of breathing training.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The reduction in left frontal functional connectivity reflected the approach motivation of emotion regulation cultivated through breathing training.

    “This phenomenon reflected the approach motivation of emotion regulation cultivated through breathing training.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The sample size of Study 1 was relatively small, and the participants were predominantly female.

    “A shortcoming was that the sample size of Study 1 was relatively small, and the participants were predominantly female.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    FDR correction was applied to all statistical analyses in the paper.

    “While we applied FDR correction to all statistical analyses in this paper, results without FDR correction are provided in Figs. 3, 4, and 5 and Supplementary Figs.1234for reference”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
52 of 52

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Breathing training styles generally have no obvious goal or motive.

    “In general, these breathing training styles have no obvious goal or motive.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    EEG is mainly a cortical-based neural imagery method.

    “as EEG is mainly a cortical-based neural imagery method”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The two breathing training styles (breath counting and guided breathing) are very common.

    “Given that these two styles are very common, we examined whether these styles contributed to a difference in frontal asymmetry outcomes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Consumer-level digital products with bio-signal sensors claim that the BF function facilitates users' breathing training efficacy.

    “In addition, some consumer-level digital products with bio-signal sensors claimed that the BF function was expected to facilitate users' breathing training efficacy.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The technology-assisted breathing training environment closely resembles the daily routines of breathing training practitioners.

    “In this study, we designed the technology-assisted breathing training environment to closely resemble the daily routines of breathing training practitioners, characterized by self-guided sessions without real-time instructor feedback.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Research on short-term breathing training and gamma activity is limited.

    “However, research on short-term breathing training and gamma activity is limited.”
6 of 6

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Consistentt(16) = -2.14reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .048

    “t(16) = -2.14, p < .05”

  • Consistentt(13) = 0.76reported p = .46 · recomputed p = .461

    “t(13) = 0.76, p = .46”

2 of 2

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Study 1 discussion claims a left frontal alpha decrease within the left hemisphere

    Major

    The discussion says left frontal and prefrontal alpha connectivity decreased to both left and right brain regions. The results instead state that the left frontal and prefrontal regions had no significant change in intra-hemispheric connectivity.

  • Study 2 reports results for regions said to be excluded

    Minor

    The paper says occipital and cingulate results were excluded from Study 2, yet its Study 2 results report significant alpha power in both regions.

  • Study 1 discussion claims a right frontal alpha decrease within the right hemisphere

    Minor

    The discussion reports decreased right frontal alpha connectivity to right brain regions, but the results say that only the right parietal and occipital regions had decreased intra-hemispheric connectivity.

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 6

  1. Deuschl, G., & Eisen, A. (1999). Recommendations for the practice of clinical neurophysiology. In G. Deuschl (Ed.), Guidelines of the International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. Elsevier Health Sciences.
  2. Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Mindfulness meditation for everyday life. Piatkus Books.
  3. Klabunde, R. (2021). Cardiovascular physiology concepts. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
  4. Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer publishing company.
  5. Luck, S. J. (2014). An introduction to the event-related potential technique. MIT press.
  6. Teplan, M. (2002). Fundamental of EEG measurement. Measurement Science Review, 2(2), 1–11.

Authors
Ng, H.-Y. H., Hsu, A.-L., Wu, C. W., Huang, C.-M., Chao, Y.-P., Jung, T.-P., & Chuang, C.-H.
Affiliations
  • National Tsing Hua University (TW)
  • National Health Research Institutes (TW)
  • University of Hong Kong (HK)
  • Chang Gung University (TW)
  • University of California San Diego (US)
Corresponding author
  • Ng, Hei-Yin Hydra
  • Hsu, Ai-Ling
  • Huang, Chih-Mao
  • Chao, Yi-Ping
  • Jung, Tzyy-Ping
  • Chuang, Chun-Hsiang
ORCID
Venue
Mindfulness
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2026-01
Volume
17
Issue
1
Pages
169-184
ISSN
  • 1868-8527 (ISSN-L)
  • 1868-8535
DOI
10.1007/s12671-025-02734-1
OpenAlex
W7124738389
Semantic Scholar
30869bb5d5fa07b29c5925012a9811b44267da60
Cited by
0
References
62
FWCI
0.00
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
Mindfulness (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
Funders
National Tsing Hua University
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Functional Brain Connectivity Studies
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Studies
Keywords
breathing exercises, frontal EEG asymmetry, functional connectivity, emotion regulation, approach motivation, mindfulness training, guided breathing, virtual reality

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-17.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-17.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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