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Cited by 387Impact of Technology on AdolescentsDigital Media and PhilosophyInnovative Human-Technology Interaction

Addictive Features of Social Media/Messenger Platforms and Freemium Games against the Background of Psychological and Economic Theories

Open access
Montag, Christian, Lachmann, Bernd, Herrlich, Marc, Zweig, Katharina·2019·International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
DOI 10.3390/ijerph16142612PMC PMC6679162
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Abstract

Currently about 2.71 billion humans use a smartphone worldwide. Although smartphone technology has brought many advances, a growing number of scientists discuss potential detrimental effects due to excessive smartphone use. Of importance, the likely culprit to understand over-usage is not the smartphone itself, but the excessive use of applications installed on smartphones. As the current business model of many app-developers foresees an exchange of personal data for allowance to use an app, it is not surprising that many design elements can be found in social media apps and Freemium games prolonging app usage. It is the aim of the present work to analyze several prominent smartphone apps to carve out such elements. As a result of the analysis, a total of six different mechanisms are highlighted to illustrate the prevailing business model in smartphone app development. First, these app-elements are described and second linked to classic psychological/economic theories such as the mere-exposure effect, endowment effect, and Zeigarnik effect, but also to psychological mechanisms triggering social comparison. It is concluded that many of the here presented app-elements on smartphones are able to prolong usage time, but it is very hard to understand such an effect on the level of a single element. A systematic analysis would require insights into app data usually only being available for the app-designers, but not for independent scientists. Nevertheless, the present work supports the notion that it is time to critically reflect on the prevailing business model of ‘user data in exchange for app-use allowance’. Instead of using a service in exchange for data, it ultimately might be better to ban or regulate certain design elements in apps to come up with less addictive products. Instead, users could pay a reasonable fee for an app service.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This theoretical paper analyzes prominent social media/messenger apps and Freemium games to identify six design mechanisms likely intended to prolong usage, linking them to psychological and economic theories. It argues that these elements may contribute to addictive app use, but independent scientists lack the platform data needed to quantify their individual or interactive effects.

Key findings

  • The paper highlights six mechanisms: endless scrolling/streaming and flow; endowment/mere exposure effects; social pressure; showing users what they like; social comparison and social reward; and the Zeigarnik/Ovsiankina effect.
  • It cites about 2.71 billion smartphone users worldwide, WhatsApp at about 1.5 billion users, and a German sample in which about 30% of daily smartphone use was accounted for by WhatsApp and Facebook.
  • Candy Crush Saga is reported as downloaded 2.7 billion times in five years, and U.S. gamers in early 2016 played an average of 3.6 mobile games per month and 1.3 daily.
  • The paper notes overlap between Smartphone Use Disorder and WhatsApp Use Disorder (rho = 0.68) and discusses neural reward findings, including stronger ventral striatum activity for Instagram pictures with many “Likes.”

Methods

  • This is not a systematic review; it is a theoretical/conceptual analysis of prominent apps such as Facebook, WhatsApp, and Candy Crush.
  • The authors present six app features in alphabetic order and link them to classic psychological/economic theories, including flow, endowment effect, mere exposure effect, nudging, social comparison, and Zeigarnik/Ovsiankina effects.
  • No primary empirical data collection or statistical modeling is reported; the work synthesizes prior literature and examples.

Limitations

  • The paper states it is theoretical and that its assumption that mechanisms were purely designed to prolong usage is speculative; it also notes that developers’ intentions cannot be known for sure.
  • It states that independent scientists usually lack access to platform data from Facebook or Candy Crush Saga, making it hard to study how strongly each feature affects usage time or how features interact.
  • Evident from the text: the analysis is not systematic, does not empirically test the proposed mechanisms, and relies on selected examples and prior literature rather than controlled app-level data.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/ijerph16142612

Cites

103 of 103 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 65 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Interpretationreasoning

    Flow can be 'fatal' in the case of applications on smartphones or other ubiquitous devices when attention should be focused elsewhere.

    “Flow is needed and warranted in different kinds of work processes, however, it can actually be ‘fatal’ in the case of applications on the smartphone or other ‘ubiquitous’ devices, when attention should be focused somewhere else”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Interpretationcitation

    Users on WhatsApp are nudged to communicate fast and often due to the double tick function.

    “Users on WhatsApp are nudged (to encourage someone to do something in a way that is gentle rather than forceful or direct [59]) to communicate fast and often on WhatsApp due to the ‘double tick function’.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [59] Thaler, R., and Sunstein, C. (2008). Improving Decisions about Health, Wealth and Happiness, Yale University Press. Penguin Books.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Interpretationcitation

    The mere exposure effect is applicable to many gaming or social media apps.

    “Also, of importance is the mere exposure effect [56]. The mere exposure effect describes that the more often you are exposed to a certain (neutral) thing or application (here a game), the more you like it. This has even been shown for the initials of your name (for an introduction in the initial preference task, e.g., see Sariyska et al. [57]) and seems to be applicable also for many of the gaming”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [56] Zajonc, 2001, Mere Exposure: A Gateway to the Subliminal, Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Sariyska et al. [57] Sariyska, 2014, Self-Esteem, Personality and Internet Addiction: A Cross-Cultural Comparison Study, Personal. Individ. Differ. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Interpretationreasoning

    Many design elements in social media apps and Freemium games, including the presented app-elements, are able to prolong app usage.

    “many design elements can be found in social media apps and Freemium games prolonging app usage”
    • Also stated in: § 4. Discussion · boosted
      “The depicted elements/features embedded in psychological and economic theory underline the notion that these elements indeed have been designed to prolong app usage.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The prevailing business model of many app developers exchanges personal data for allowance to use an app.
  • Premisecitation

    The concepts of SUD and WhatsApp Use Disorder overlap in large parts, with a correlation of rho = 0.68.

    “Moreover, a recent work by Sha et al. [28] showed that the concepts of SUD and WhatsApp Use Disorder overlap in large parts (correlation of rho = 0.68).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sha et al. [28] Sha, 2019, Linking Internet Communication and Smartphone Use Disorder by Taking a Closer Look at the Facebook and WhatsApp Applications, Addict. Behav. Rep.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims. 22
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 15

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The double tick process is known to undermine well-being and might in parts be responsible for rising social concerns when people start to use smartphones.

    “This process is also known to undermine well-being [60] and might in parts be responsible for rising social concerns when people start to use smartphones [61].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [60] Blabst, N., and Diefenbach, S. (2017, January 3–6). WhatsApp and Wellbeing: A Study on WhatsApp Usage, Communication Quality and Stress. Proceedings of the 31st British Computer Society Human Computer Interaction Conference, Sunderland, UK. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [61] Hadar, A., Hadas, I., Lazarovits, A., Alyagon, U., Eliraz, D., and Zangen, A. (2017). Answering the Missed Call: Initial Exploration of Cognitive and Electrophysiological Changes Associated with Smartphone Use and Abuse. PLoS ONE, 12. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    According to statista.com, in early 2016 U.S. gamers played an average of 3.6 mobile games per month and 1.3 games on a daily basis.

    “According to statista.com, “In early 2016 … U.S. gamers played an average of 3.6 mobile games per month, and 1.3 games on a daily basis” [36].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [36] Statista (2019, April 03). Available online: https://www.statista.com/topics/1906/mobile-gaming/.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The endowment effect and mere exposure effect play important roles in the areas of social media and games.

    “The endowment and the mere exposure effect play important roles in the areas of social media and games.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    By endlessly scrolling down, the user gets more immersed while not coming to a natural stop where he or she might reconsider to quit or change the platform.

    “By endlessly scrolling down, the user is getting more and more immersed (perhaps also on a motor level as perceiving the scrolling as a playful activity) while not coming to a natural stop, where he/she might easily reconsider to quit or change the platform.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    As both sides know the double tick rules, social pressure emerges and both parties likely expect a fast answer, especially if the message has been read.

    “As both sides know about these rules, social pressure emerges. Both parties likely expect a fast answer, above all, if the message apparently has been read.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    In Hayday, progress without investing money is very slow, with scarce rewards after initial fast progress.

    “As with other games, progress without investing money is very slow, which means that after some fast progress at the beginning of the game (to attract people to the game), rewards in terms of the urgently needed relevant game currency are scarce.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The power of defaults is a well-known principle applicable to decision making in many areas, especially software applications.

    “In general, the ‘power of defaults’ is a well-known principle applicable to decision making in many different areas and especially in software applications [63,64].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [63] Dinner, 2011, Partitioning Default Effects: Why People Choose Not to Choose, J. Exp. Psychol. Appl. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [64] Kesan, 2006, Setting Software Defaults: Perspectives from Law, Computer Science and Behavioral Economics, Notre Dame Law Rev.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    In smartphone games, every time players invest more time in constructing the virtual world, it becomes harder for them to detach from the game or delete the app, especially if progress has been slow and took a long time.

    “In the context of smartphone games, this plays out as follows: every time players visit the app platform and invest more time in the construction of the virtual world, it will get harder for them to detach from the game or even delete the app. This is in particular the case, if the progress has been slow and it took the users a very long time to construct the online world.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    App and platform technologies are designed to be immersive, producing flow while using a certain app.

    “App and platform technologies are designed to be immersive, hence producing flow while using a certain app.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    There is overlap between SUD and excessive social media use, and links between SUD and (Internet) Gaming Disorder.

    “A new work underlines the overlap between SUD and excessive social media use, but also links between SUD and (Internet) Gaming Disorder [29].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [29] Leung, H., Pakpour, A.H., Strong, C., Lin, Y.C., Tsai, M.C., Griffiths, M.D., Lin, C.-Y., and Chen, I.H. (2019). Measurement invariance across young adults from Hong Kong and Taiwan among three internet-related addiction scales: Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS), Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale (SABAS), and Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form (IGDS-SF9) (Study Part A). Addict. Behav. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisereasoning

    Freemium games are relevant for investigating elements of apps built to prolong usage time because such games most often run with the business model of 'gaming service in exchange for your data'.

    “Freemium games are very relevant for the present work investigating elements of apps built to prolong usage time, because such games most often run with the business model of ‘gaming service in exchange for your data’.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The prevailing business model of many app developers exchanges personal data for allowance to use an app.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    A systematic analysis of app elements would require insights into app data usually only available to app-designers, not independent scientists.

    “A systematic analysis would require insights into app data usually only being available for the app-designers, but not for independent scientists.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The default mode of WhatsApp comes with the double tick function activated, and most users do not know they can deactivate it.

    “The default mode of WhatsApp comes with the ‘double tick function’ being activated. Most users do not know that they are able to deactivate this app-feature.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The effect of body image avoidance is likely driven by social comparison processes, particularly when a person is confronted with thin models or other attractive persons, and might be stronger on Instagram and for users with low self-esteem and being female.

    “The latter effect is likely driven by social comparison processes, in particular when a person is confronted with thin models or other (thin) attractive persons [90]. These effects might be in particular strong on platforms such as Instagram and for those users with low self-esteem [91] and being female [92,93].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [90] Brown, 2016, Attractive celebrity and peer images on Instagram: Effect on women’s mood and body image, Body Image source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [91] Ahadzadeh, 2017, Self-schema and self-discrepancy mediate the influence of Instagram usage on body image satisfaction among youth, Comput. Hum. Behav. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [92] Cohen, 2017, The relationship between Facebook and Instagram appearance-focused activities and body image concerns in young women, Body Image source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [93] Meier, 2014, Facebook photo activity associated with body image disturbance in adolescent girls, Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Social comparison might lead to lower self-esteem, and the size of one's real social network to be successfully handled seems limited by Dunbar's number, likely also valid on social media channels such as Twitter.

    “Without doubt, the social comparison process is not unproblematic, because it might lead to lower self-esteem [79] and the size of one’s own real social network to be successfully handled seems to be limited by the so called Dunbar’s number (a theoretical limit to the number of people with whom any individual is able to sustain a stable or meaningful social relationship, usually considered to be”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [79] Vogel, 2014, Social Comparison, Social Media, and Self-Esteem, Psychol. Pop. Media Cult. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [80] Dunbar, R. (2010). How Many Friends Does One Person Need? Dunbar’s Number and Other, Faber & Faber. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [81] Gonçalves, B., Perra, N., and Vespignani, A. (2011). Modeling Users’ Activity on Twitter Networks: Validation of Dunbar’s Number. PLoS ONE, 6. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Facebook developed machine learning algorithms that record what people like and how long they hover over posts, and textmining enables sentiment analysis.

    “Over the years, Facebook developed machine learning algorithms studying the behavior of their users in detail on the platform. In order to get to know their users better, they do not only record what people ‘like’ (i.e., give a ‘thumbs up’) but also how long they hover over a certain post. This could be interpreted as showing a special interest in a certain area. ‘Textmining’ enables Facebook & Co”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [67] Eichstaedt, 2018, Facebook Language Predicts Depression in Medical Records, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [68] Kramer, 2014, Experimental Evidence of Massive-Scale Emotional Contagion through Social Networks, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [69] Schwartz, H.A., Eichstaedt, J., Kern, M.L., Park, G., Sap, M., Stillwell, D., Kosinski, M., and Ungar, L. (, January June). Towards Assessing Changes in Degree of Depression through Facebook. Proceedings of the Workshop on Computational Linguistics and Clinical Psychology: From Linguistic Signal to Clinical Reality, Baltimore, MD, USA.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Facebook has a great interest in studying each person's behavior in detail so that only the most interesting information is presented in the Newsfeed, because otherwise people could get bored and close the browser window.

    “Facebook has a great interest in studying the behavior of each person at perfection and in much detail, so that at best only such information is presented in the ‘Newsfeed’ which is most interesting for the user. Otherwise, people could get bored and close the browser window.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    These classic works suggest that individuals involved in high investment tasks react with emotional strain if interrupted, and final completion removes this strain.

    “In sum, these classic works from the field of psychology suggest that individuals involved in the execution of high investment tasks, react with (emotional) strain if interrupted. The final completion of the task will remove this strain.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [82] Zeĭgarnik, B.V. (1927). Über das Behalten von Erledigten und Unerledigten Handlungen, J. Springer.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [83] Rickers-Ovsiankina, M.A. (1928). Die Wiederaufnahme Unterbrochener Handlungen, Springer.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The analysis of different elements can be used to plant the most interesting news in one's own personalized Newsfeed.

    “The analysis of the different elements presented in this paragraph technically can all be used to plant the most interesting news in one’s own personalized ‘Newsfeed’.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Social pressure plays a role not only on social media platforms to enhance user engagement but also in computer games.

    “Social pressure plays not only a role on social media platforms to enhance user engagement, but also in computer games.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    According to the I-PACE model, a history of psychopathology might be a vulnerability factor to develop IUD (and its mobile form of SUD).

    “According to the I-PACE model [26] (and its recent update [86]), a history of psychopathology might indeed be a vulnerability factor to develop IUD (and its mobile form of SUD).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [26] Brand, 2016, Integrating Psychological and Neurobiological Considerations Regarding the Development and Maintenance of Specific Internet-Use Disorders: An Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) Model, Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [86] Brand, 2019, The Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model for addictive behaviors: Update, generalization to addictive behaviors beyond Internet-use disorders, and specification of the process character of addictive behaviors, Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Apps on smartphones are not in general bad and not always cause negative emotionality or dissatisfaction with one's own body image; some applications might even foster physical activity and help persons improve their diet.

    “Of importance, apps on smartphones are not in general bad and not always cause negative emotionality or dissatisfaction with one’s own body image. In contrast, some applications might even foster physical activity and help persons to improve their diet [96].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [96] Schoeppe, 2017, Apps to improve diet, physical activity and sedentary behaviour in children and adolescents: A review of quality, features and behaviour change techniques, Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Classic studies by Zeigarnik and Rickers-Ovsiankina observed that interrupted tasks are better remembered and that some participants returned to unfinished tasks after the experiment.

    “In the classic work by Zeĭgarnik, participants of her study got interrupted while solving a puzzle and, in the aftermath, best remembered those tasks where they were interrupted compared to those tasks which they successfully could end. From the same work group, Rickers-Ovsiankina [83] then observed that persons not only seem to be better at remembering the tasks where they got interrupted, but”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [82] Zeĭgarnik, B.V. (1927). Über das Behalten von Erledigten und Unerledigten Handlungen, J. Springer.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [83] Rickers-Ovsiankina, M.A. (1928). Die Wiederaufnahme Unterbrochener Handlungen, Springer.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    In Candy Crush Saga, when the game has not been played for a while, the gamer is endowed with five lives; some levels are very hard, and losing lives results in emotional strain that provokes people to spend extra money to buy additional lives/gaming energy.

    “Of note, when the game has not been played for a while, the gamer is endowed with five lives. Some levels are very hard to solve and in case of Candy Crush Saga it is even mentioned that a “super hard level” is coming up. As some of these levels are “super hard” to solve (rumor has it that it is even impossible at first try), players easily loose several of those free lives ending up with no”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Social comparison also plays a role in Freemium games, such as through highscore-boards.

    “Social comparison also plays a role in Freemium games, when one thinks of the highscore-boards where you can compare your scores in a game with those from others.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    An anecdotal report by Microsoft says only 5% of Word users change the default settings.

    “For instance, there is an anecdotal report by Microsoft that only 5% of Word users change the defaults settings [65].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [65] (2019, April 17). Available online: https://archive.uie.com/brainsparks/2011/09/14/do-users-change-their-settings/.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    In World of Warcraft, guilds create pressure on individuals to be online at a certain time to support their guild, which goes along with a stronger focus on online activities instead of offline issues.

    “As such a guild in particular performs well when being complete, the pressure on the individual of such an online group rises to be at a certain time in the online world to support one’s own guild. This goes along with a stronger focus in life on online activities instead on perhaps more pressing issues in the offline world.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    There are links between IUD and BMI and between IUD and body image avoidance.

    “Additional relevant areas discussed in the literature—probably being a result of too much online consumption—are links between IUD and BMI [88] and between IUD and body image avoidance [89].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [88] Canan, 2014, The relationship between internet addiction and body mass index in Turkish adolescents, Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [89] Rodgers, 2013, Internet addiction symptoms, disordered eating, and body image avoidance, Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Consumers become instantaneously attached to and are reluctant to give up digital services once they have obtained them.

    ““consumers become instantaneously attached to and are reluctant to give up digital services once they have obtained them” ([102], p. 311).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [102] Fritze, 2019, Digital transformation and possession attachment: Examining the endowment effect for consumers’ relationships with hedonic and utilitarian digital service technologies, Electron. Commer. Res. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Some developers, such as Justin Rosenstein, confess about the addictive nature of some of the presented elements.

    “some developers, such as Justin Rosenstein, confess about the addictive nature of some of the presented elements [73].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [73] (2019, April 03). Man Who Invented ‘Like’ Button Deletes Facebook App over Addiction Fears. Available online: https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/facebook-like-inventor-deletes-app-iphone-justin-rosenstein-addiction-fears-a7986566.html.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Time distortions are a well-known companion of flow processes.

    “Such time distortions are a well-known companion of flow processes as described in 3.1.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
31 of 31

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The prevailing business model of many app developers exchanges personal data for allowance to use an app.

    “As the current business model of many app-developers foresees an exchange of personal data for allowance to use an app”
    “The ‘classic’ app-business model of Silicon Valley asks the user not to pay with money to be able to use a certain application but with his/her personal data.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The apps analyzed, such as Facebook, WhatsApp, and Candy Crush, are representative of social media/messenger platforms and Freemium games.

    “These insights have been derived by analysis of prominent and often used apps such as Facebook, WhatsApp, or Candy Crush.”
    “What follows is an overview of features built into social media/messenger and Freemium game applications likely prolonging app usage.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The mechanisms have been purely designed to prolong usage time of an app.

    “Clearly, our assumption that these mechanisms have been purely designed to prolong usage time of an app is speculative”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Studies are largely lacking that aim at understanding how strongly each of the aforementioned features of the platforms/games impacts upon usage time.

    “To our knowledge, studies are largely lacking aiming at an understanding of how strong each of the aforementioned features of the platforms/games impact upon usage time.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Companies such as Facebook and Google earn their money with data.

    “because companies such as Facebook and Google earn their money with data.”
5 of 5

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

1 of the 104 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. Thaler, R., and Sunstein, C. (2008). Improving Decisions about Health, Wealth and Happiness, Yale University Press. Penguin Books.
  2. Zeĭgarnik, B.V. (1927). Über das Behalten von Erledigten und Unerledigten Handlungen, J. Springer.
  3. Rickers-Ovsiankina, M.A. (1928). Die Wiederaufnahme Unterbrochener Handlungen, Springer.
  4. Andone, I., Błaszkiewicz, K., Trendafilov, B., Eibes, M., Montag, C., and Markowetz, A. (2016, January 7–12). Menthal—Running a Science Project as a Start-Up. Proceedings of the Computing in Mental Health, Workshop at CHI 2016, San Jose, CA, USA. · DOI

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Authors
Montag, C., Lachmann, B., Herrlich, M., & Zweig, K.
Affiliations
  • Universität Ulm (DE)
  • University of Kaiserslautern (DE)
Corresponding author
Montag, Christian
ORCID
Venue
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2019-07-23
Volume
16
Issue
14
Pages
2612
ISSN
1660-4601 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/ijerph16142612
PMC
PMC6679162
OpenAlex
W2964135621
Semantic Scholar
90a771a9e57999233e6bce76a39b3790d856b095
Cited by
387
References
104
Citations by year
2026: 89 · 2025: 86 · 2024: 38 · 2023: 63 · 2022: 45 · 2021: 39 · 2020: 26 · 2019: 1
FWCI
7.25
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
Funders
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (MO2363/3-2)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Science Applications › Digital Media and Philosophy
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Innovative Human-Technology Interaction
Keywords
smartphone addiction, social media applications, mere exposure effect, endowment effect, Zeigarnik effect, social comparison, psychological mechanisms, economic theory
MeSH terms
Games, Recreational, Smartphone, Humans, Behavior, Addictive, Social Media, Mobile Applications

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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