Cited by 1,396Eating Disorders and BehaviorsNutrition, Health and Food BehaviorRegulation of Appetite and Obesity

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How emotions affect eating: A five-way model

Macht, Michael·2008·Appetite

DOI 10.1016/j.appet.2007.07.002

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Abstract

Despite the importance of affective processes in eating behaviour, it remains difficult to predict how emotions affect eating. Emphasizing individual differences, previous research did not pay full attention to the twofold variability of emotion-induced changes of eating (variability across both individuals and emotions). By contrast, the present paper takes into account both individual characteristics and emotion features, and specifies five classes of emotion-induced changes of eating: (1) emotional control of food choice, (2) emotional suppression of food intake, (3) impairment of cognitive eating controls, (4) eating to regulate emotions, and (5) emotion-congruent modulation of eating. These classes are distinguished by antecedent conditions, eating responses and mediating mechanisms. They point to basic functional principles underlying the relations between emotions and biologically based motives: interference, concomitance and regulation. Thus, emotion-induced changes of eating can be a result of interference of eating by emotions, a by-product of emotions, and a consequence of regulatory processes (i.e., emotions may regulate eating, and eating may regulate emotions).

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Background
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Background
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Background
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Background
Self-reported food-evoked emotions of younger adults, older normosmic adults, and older hyposmic adults as measured using the PrEmo2 tool and the Affect Grid
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“In this regard, Macht (2008) reviews the range of eating-related emotions examined by various authors, and proposes a set of alternative models to explain this kind of behaviour.”
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Low Adherence to the Mediterranean Diet in Isolated Adolescents: The Mediation Effects of Stress
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“There are studies that demonstrate that anxiety and enduring negative emotional situations are strongly related to undereating and unconscious appetite (Macht, 2008).”
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Emotion regulation mediates relationships between perceived childhood invalidation, emotional reactivity, and emotional eating
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“Emotional eating occurs in response to a wide range of negative and positive emotions that uniquely influence eating (Macht, 2008).”
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Exploring the effects of daily hassles and uplifts on eating behaviour in young adults: The role of daily cortisol levels
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Long term high fat diet induces metabolic disorders and aggravates behavioral disorders and cognitive deficits in MAPT P301L transgenic mice
Xiong, J., Deng, I. B., Kelliny, S., Lin, L., Bobrovskaya, L., & Zhou, X. (2022) · Metabolic Brain Disease · doi:10.1007/s11011-022-01029-x · Cited by 28
“Notably, it is reported that depressed individuals are more likely to gain excessive weight due to reduced energy metabolism (Luppino et al. 2010; Macht 2008).”
A prospective study of weight development and behavior problems in toddlers: the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study
Garthus‐Niegel, S., Hagtvet, K. A., & Vollrath, M. E. (2010) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-10-626 · Cited by 26
Binge eating & childhood emotional abuse: The mediating role of anger
Feinson, M. C., & Hornik‐Lurie, T. (2016) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2016.05.018 · Cited by 26
Obesity and emotions: Differentiation in emotions felt towards food between obese, overweight and normal-weight adolescents
Barthomeuf, L., Droit‐Volet, S., & Rousset, S. (2008) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2008.07.005 · Cited by 26
“They experience more negative emotions, lose control of their food intake and revert to overconsumption (Macht, 2008).”
Background
Which Healthy Eating Nudges Work Best? A Meta-Analysis of Field ExperimentsPreprint
Cadario, R., & Chandon, P. (2017) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3090829 · Cited by 27
Mapping the Tip of the Tongue—Deprivation, Sensory Sensitisation, and Oral Haptics
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“…states of chronic and transient food deprivation have been shown to substantially moderate a number of affective and motivational responses to needrelevant cues (see, eg, for the bi-directional relation between eating and affect, Macht 2008; Macht and Dettmer 2006; Macht and Mu« ller 2007).”
Background
Emotional Symptoms and Dietary Patterns in Early Adolescence: A School-Based Follow-up Study
Aparicio, E., Canals, J., Voltas, N., Valenzano, A. A., & Arija, V. (2017) · Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jneb.2017.01.015 · Cited by 25
Rethinking emotional eating: Retrospective and momentary indices of emotional eating represent distinct constructs
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An Open Trial Examining Dialectical Behavior Therapy Skills and Behavioral Weight Loss for Adults With Emotional Eating and Overweight/Obesity
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State craving, food availability, and reactivity to preferred snack foods
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“Additionally, affective processes, particularly NA, predict selfregulatory failure in the realm of eating behavior (Ganley, 1989; Macht, 2008; Tuomisto, Tuomisto, Hetherington, & Lappalainen, 1998).”
Background
Personality and Situation Predictors of Consistent Eating Patterns
Vainik, U., Dubé, L., Lu, J., & Fellows, L. K. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0144134 · Cited by 27
Affect and between-meal snacking in daily life: the moderating role of gender and age
Wouters, S., Jacobs, N., Duif, M., Lechner, L., & Thewissen, V. (2017) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2017.1380813 · Cited by 25
“It is generally accepted that changes in affective states can alter snacking behaviour (e.g. Cartwright et al., 2003; Conner, Fitter, & Fletcher, 1999; Greeno & Wing, 1994; Macht, 2008; O’Connor, Jones, Conner, McMillan, & Ferguson, 2008; O’Connor & O’Connor, 2004; Oliver & Wardle, 1999; Patel & Schlundt, 2001; Tice,…”
BackgroundInfluential
Emotional eating behavior among University of Bahrain students: a cross-sectional study
Alalwan, T. A., Hilal, S., Mahdi, A. M., Ahmed, M. A., & Mandeel, Q. A. (2019) · Arab Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences · doi:10.1080/25765299.2019.1655836 · Cited by 30
“Furthermore, different emotions may increase or decrease food consumption in the same person (Macht, 2008).”
Background
Subtyping Children and Adolescents Who Are Overweight Based on Eating Pathology and Psychopathology
Braet, C., Beyers, W., Goossens, L., Verbeken, S., & Moens, E. (2011) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/erv.1151 · Cited by 25
“Moreover, risk factor models do suggest that specifically these markers also trigger overeating in adults (Macht, 2008) and in children (Goossens et al., 2007; Stice et al., 2005).”
Background
Everyday Eating Experiences of Chocolate and Non-Chocolate Snacks Impact Postprandial Anxiety, Energy and Emotional States
Martin, F., Antille, N., Rezzi, S., & Kochhar, S. (2012) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu4060554 · Cited by 25
“However, the influence of negative emotions on food intake is complex [32], and may decrease or increase food intake depending on individuals [33].”
Background
Relationships of cognitive load on eating and weight-related behaviors of young adults
Byrd‐Bredbenner, C., Quick, V., Koenings, M., Martin‐Biggers, J. T., & Kattelmann, K. K. (2016) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2016.01.002 · Cited by 24
Emotional processing in recovered anorexia nervosa patients: A 15 year longitudinal study
Castro, T. F., Miller, K. M., Araújo, M., Brandão, I., & Torres, S. (2021) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/erv.2858 · Cited by 24
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Gurdian, C. E., Torrico, D. D., Li, B., & Prinyawiwatkul, W. (2022) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods11030337 · Cited by 24
“Except for “disgusted”, the close association with the other terms may be beneficial for the Cajun treatment as evoking sensations and feelings that belong to the activation/arousal and pleasantness dimensions is a positive effect for novel foods and ingredients such as ECP [8], and “bored” does not necessarily negati…”
Background
Positive emotions and their upregulation increase willingness to consume healthy foods
Schubert, E., & Bode, S. (2022) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2022.106420 · Cited by 27
Emotional Eating and Changes in High-Sugar Food and Drink Consumption Linked to Psychological Distress and Worries: A Cohort Study from Norway
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“EE is eating in response to negative emotional states, such as anxiety, loneliness, or boredom [13].”
Stronger together: Coping behaviours and mental health changes of Canadian adolescents in early phases of the COVID-19 pandemic
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Prevalence and correlates of generalized anxiety disorder and perceived stress among Sudanese medical students
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“Similarly, many unhealthy behaviors have been identified to be associated with increased stress such as infrequent exercise, alcohol drinking, smoking, sleep disorders, and eating poorly [69–71].”
Background
Exploring the factor structure of the Food Cravings Questionnaire-Trait in Cuban adults
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“Finally, Factor 4 could be named as eating to regulate emotions or emotional eating, which is consistent with the five way model proposed by Macht (2008).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Involvement of Hepatic SHIP2 and PI3K/Akt Signalling in the Regulation of Plasma Insulin by Xiaoyaosan in Chronic Immobilization-Stressed Rats
Pan, Q., Wu, J., Liu, Y., Li, X., & Chen, J. (2019) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules24030480 · Cited by 25
“Clinical studies in patients have revealed that most subjects report a preference for palatable food rich in fat and sugar during negative emotions [57].”
Background
Do emotions predict eating? The role of previous experiences in emotional eating in the lab and in daily life
Altheimer, G., Giles, G. E., Remedios, J. D., Kanarek, R. B., & Urry, H. L. (2020) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2020.105016 · Cited by 32
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“Building upon these prior theories, Macht [24] broadened the conceptual understanding of how food and emotions are related and argued that distinct emotions cause people to eat more or less, and that people vary in how they respond.”
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Three Views of Emotion Regulation and Health
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The Influence of Consumer Involvement in Wine Consumption-Elicited Emotions
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“In addition, prior research has focused on the previous emotional state and the subsequent consumption of food products (Macht, 2008), the emotional state and emotions arising from food exposure (Cardello et al.”
Background
Quantifying Interpersonal Dynamics for Studying Socio-Emotional Processes and Adverse Health Behaviors
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Obese Subjects without Eating Disorders Experience Binge Episodes Also Independently of Emotional Eating and Personality Traits among University Students of Southern Italy
Villano, I., Ilardi, C. R., Arena, S., Scuotto, C., Gleijeses, M. G., Messina, G., Messina, A., Monda, V., Monda, M., Iavarone, A., et al. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11091145 · Cited by 23
“, sugar or fat [19], higher body mass index (BMI) [20], poorer psychological well-being, and an increased rate of psychopathological disorders including depression, anxiety, apathy, obsessive-compulsive disorder, schizophrenia, and different types of eating disorders [21–29].”
Background
Food Addiction Correlates with Psychosocial Functioning More Than Metabolic Parameters in Patients with Obesity
Kiyici, S., Koca, N., Sigirli, D., Aslan, B. B., Guclu, M., & Kisakol, G. (2020) · Metabolic Syndrome and Related Disorders · doi:10.1089/met.2019.0108 · Cited by 22
The link between external and internal shame and binge eating: the mediating role of body image-related shame and cognitive fusion
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Influence of Electric Taste, Smell, Color, and Thermal Sensory Modalities on the Liking and Mediated Emotions of Virtual Flavor Perception
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“For example, we prefer to have a cup of tea or coffee when we are tired, eat candies when we are stressed, and sip a glass of lemonade on a hot summer day to relax - all these experiences are related to our emotions [25].”
Background
Sensory Features Introduced by Brewery Spent Grain with Impact on Consumers’ Motivations and Emotions for Fibre-Enriched Products
Curutchet, A., Serantes, M., Pontet, C., Prisco, F., Arcia, P., Barg, G., Menéndez, J. A., & Tárrega, A. (2021) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods11010036 · Cited by 25
Effects of activating transcription factor 4 deficiency on carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in mammals
Wang, C., & Guo, F. (2012) · IUBMB Life · doi:10.1002/iub.605 · Cited by 22
“This process has also been shown to affect eating and control food choice (39).”
Background

Authors: Macht, M.
Affiliations: University of Würzburg (DE)
Corresponding author: Macht, Michael
ORCID: Macht, Michael
Venue: Appetite
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2008-01
Volume: 50
Issue: 1
Pages: 1-11
ISSN: 0195-6663 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2007.07.002
OpenAlex: W2007130974
Cited by: 1,396
References: 156
Citations by year: 2026: 96 · 2025: 109 · 2024: 102 · 2023: 136 · 2022: 107 · 2021: 126 · 2020: 95 · 2019: 82 · 2018: 72 · 2017: 80 · 2016: 74 · 2015: 80 · 2014: 68 · 2013: 47 · 2012: 40
FWCI: 2.41
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Appetite (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
Keywords: eating behaviour, food choice, emotion regulation, emotional suppression, cognitive control, individual differences, emotion features
MeSH terms: Appetite Regulation, Eating, Emotions, Food, Food Preferences, Humans, Models, Biological

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How emotions affect eating: A five-way model

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