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How emotions affect eating: A five-way model
Abstract
Despite the importance of affective processes in eating behaviour, it remains difficult to predict how emotions affect eating. Emphasizing individual differences, previous research did not pay full attention to the twofold variability of emotion-induced changes of eating (variability across both individuals and emotions). By contrast, the present paper takes into account both individual characteristics and emotion features, and specifies five classes of emotion-induced changes of eating: (1) emotional control of food choice, (2) emotional suppression of food intake, (3) impairment of cognitive eating controls, (4) eating to regulate emotions, and (5) emotion-congruent modulation of eating. These classes are distinguished by antecedent conditions, eating responses and mediating mechanisms. They point to basic functional principles underlying the relations between emotions and biologically based motives: interference, concomitance and regulation. Thus, emotion-induced changes of eating can be a result of interference of eating by emotions, a by-product of emotions, and a consequence of regulatory processes (i.e., emotions may regulate eating, and eating may regulate emotions).
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“negative emotional eating is a heterogenous construct [1, 33, 34].”
From Mindfulness facets differentially relate to self-reported negative and positive emotional eating types in treatment-seeking adults with overweight/obesity (2023) · cites this paper as [33]
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, there is evidence that eating is affected differently by emotions of differing valence although relatively little is known about the effects of positive emotions on eating (Macht, 2008).”
From Emotional Appetite Questionnaire. Construct validity and relationship with BMI (2010) · cites this paper as Macht, 2008
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BackgroundPredictors of binge eating in male and female youths in the United Arab Emirates
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“This body of research suggests that mood intolerance might lead to subsequent binge eating, whereby binge eating occurs as an attempt to regulate one’s emotions (Macht, 2008).”
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“Difficulty understanding emotion has been linked to eating disorders (Bydlowski et al., 2005) and overeating of high calorie foods has been associated with emotional regulation (Macht, 2008).”
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Palomino-Pérez, A. M. (2020) · Revista chilena de nutrición · doi:10.4067/s0717-75182020000200286 · Cited by 45
Food Addiction in Gambling Disorder: Frequency and Clinical Outcomes
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“…condition that can involve a combination of metabolic, genetic, environmental, psychological, and behavioral factors, and that eating can be regulated by factors unrelated to metabolic control, such as stress and emotions (Macht, 2008; Hildebrandt and Greif, 2013; Di Segni et al., 2014).”
BackgroundSmith, K. E., Mason, T. B., Crosby, R. D., Engel, S. G., Crow, S. J., Wonderlich, S. A., & Peterson, C. B. (2017) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2017.09.020 · Cited by 47
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“While the mechanisms of how emotional eating helps cope with negative emotions are not well understood (Macht 2008), one possible mechanism is that consumption of carbohydrate-rich foods could decrease the activity of hypothalamo-pituitary–adrenal axis and dampen stress responses (Dallman et al.”
BackgroundPilot Study of Aurora, a Social, Mobile-Phone-Based Emotion Sharing and Recording System
Gay, G., Pollak, J. P., Adams, P., & Leonard, J. P. (2011) · Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology · doi:10.1177/193229681100500219 · Cited by 40
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Sijtsema, S. J., Jesionkowska, K., Symoneaux, R., Konopacka, D., & Snoek, H. M. (2012) · LWT · doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2012.04.027 · Cited by 43
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Differences in Food Craving in Individuals With Obesity With and Without Binge Eating Disorder
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“Accordingly, negative mood states have been reported to increase eating behavior, an effect described as emotional eating (e.g., Macht, 2008; Bongers et al., 2015).”
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“In a review, Macht could argue the relationship between emotions and eating habits, positing that emotions could regulate eating, likewise eating may regulate one’s emotions [15].”
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Mohan, A., Huybrechts, I., & Michels, N. (2022) · European Journal of Cancer Prevention · doi:10.1097/cej.0000000000000752 · Cited by 42
“pathways Past evidence suggests that people exposed to stressors or with high stress levels likely have a poor diet (Adam and Epel, 2007; Macht, 2008; Hill et al., 2021), smoke (Aubin et al.”
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Maíz, E., & Balluerka, N. (2017) · Food Research International · doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2017.12.037 · Cited by 41
Bjørklund, O., Wichstrøm, L., Llewellyn, C. H., & Steinsbekk, S. (2018) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13110 · Cited by 44
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Trattner, C., Moesslang, D., & Elsweiler, D. (2018) · EPJ Data Science · doi:10.1140/epjds/s13688-018-0149-5 · Cited by 41
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“…(Dunning, O’Cass, & Pecotich, 2004); the examination of how emotions lead to different consumption behaviors (Lerner, Small, & Loewenstein, 2004; Macht, 2008); the influence of emotions on product attitudes (Dube & Menon, 2000), consumer satisfaction (Phillips & Baumgartner, 2002), loyalty and…”
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The (gradual) development of emotion measurement for food
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“Similarly, anxiety and depression both have been shown to impact food choice and intake (Macht, 2008; Singh, 2014).”
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O'Connor, D. B., Armitage, C. J., & Ferguson, E. (2014) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12160-014-9668-x · Cited by 44
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BackgroundStress-induced eating and the relaxation response as a potential antidote: A review and hypothesis
Masih, T., Dimmock, J. A., Epel, E. S., & Guelfi, K. J. (2017) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2017.08.005 · Cited by 40
“More specifically, preference for high fat-high sugar foods has been repeatedly documented (Epel et al., 2001; Macht, 2008; Newman, O’Connor, & Conner, 2007; Rutters, Nieuwenhuizen, Lemmens, Born, & Westerterp-plantenga, 2009).”
Smith, K. E., Mason, T. B., Crosby, R. D., Engel, S. G., & Wonderlich, S. A. (2019) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2019.01.014 · Cited by 43
“…consistent with research findings that both positive and negative emotions have been shown to predict eating behavior (e.g., Bongers et al., 2013; Macht, 2008), and impulsive behaviors such as binge eating may occur in the context of heightened negative or positive affect, which may be…”
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Temperament as a predictor of eating behavior in middle childhood – A fixed effects approach
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“Research does show that emotions can both increase and decrease food intake, but less is known about which emotional or individual characteristics predict more or less eating (Macht, 2008).”
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“Prevalence estimates of stress-induced eating suggest approximately one-third to half of all individuals are prone to increases in intake during increasing stress, one-third to two-thirds report decreases in intake, and approximately one-quarter report no change (Gibson, 2012; Macht, 2008).”
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“In a series of experimental studies, successful appetitive conditioning to neutral cues like serving trays, vases, and children ’ s jewellery boxes was demonstrated by systematically pairing these neutral cues with the eating of some-thing palatable, like a small piece of chocolate (van den Akker, Havermans, Bouton, &…”
BackgroundInfluentialEmotional Responses to Products
Spinelli, S., & Monteleone, E. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-102089-0.00011-x · Cited by 38
Emotional eating, the factors which affect food intake and basic approaches of nursing care
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Gender-Related Patterns of Emotion Regulation among Patients with Eating Disorders
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“ER allows one to cope with aversive emotions, is a core feature of self-regulation, and has a profound influence on food intake behaviors [4].”
Motoki, K., Saito, T. I., Nouchi, R., Kawashima, R., & Sugiura, M. (2019) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2019.02.009 · Cited by 39
Are anthropometric measurements an indicator of intuitive and mindful eating?
Özkan, N., & Bilici, S. (2020) · Eating and Weight Disorders · doi:10.1007/s40519-020-00904-9 · Cited by 37
“1 3 of emotions or a result of regulatory processes [5].”
BackgroundPatterns of negative emotional eating among Chinese young adults: A latent class analysis
He, J., Chen, G., Wu, S., Niu, R., & Fan, X. (2020) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2020.104808 · Cited by 38
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“Various mechanisms have been proposed by which eating might reduce negative emotions, including operant learning during childhood, distraction, and physiological changes associated with food intake (Heatherton & Baumeister, 1991; Macht, 2008; Macht & Mueller, 2007; Spoor et al., 2007).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialDaros, A. R., Guevara, M. A., Uliaszek, A. A., McMain, S. F., & Ruocco, A. C. (2018) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000487008 · Cited by 37
Using ecological momentary assessment to better understand dietary lapse types
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Wiedemann, A. A., Ivezaj, V., & Barnes, R. D. (2018) · General Hospital Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2018.09.003 · Cited by 43
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“Research on the impact of food flavours on mood is limited (Köster and Mojet, 2015), with the general focus being in the reverse direction where mood has been identified as changing ratings of taste (Platte et al., 2013), flavour (Heath et al., 2006) and food consumption (Macht, 2008).”
BackgroundFeeling happy and thinking about food. Counteractive effects of mood and memory on food consumption
Collins, R., & Stafford, L. D. (2014) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2014.09.021 · Cited by 35
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“(FG1) The adolescent girls’ stories about using food as a coping strategy illuminate what has been shown in research (Macht, 2008), namely that eating as a response to negative emotions and mood may result in the increased intake of sweet and high-fat foods.”
BackgroundCan we link emotional eating with the emotion regulation skills of adolescents?
Vandewalle, J., Moens, E., Beyers, W., & Braet, C. (2016) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2016.1149586 · Cited by 41
“However, research has found that experiencing less intense emotions, like being exposed to more chronic psychological stressors or to ordinary daily hassles, may lead to seeking out and consuming highly palatable food, such as food rich in sugar and/or fat (Macht, 2008; Macht & Simons, 2000; O’Connor, Jones, Conner, M…”
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“Eating as a coping mechanism in response to stress is frequently reported among individuals across the weight spectrum, though there is wide variability between studies with estimates of individuals who eat more when stressed ranging from 4 to 55 % (Macht, 2008; Weinstein et al., 1997).”
Development of a Questionnaire to Assess People’s Food Choices Determinants
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Effects of emotional responses to certain foods on the prediction of consumer acceptance
Juodeikienė, G., Žadeikė, D., Klupšaitė, D., Černauskas, D., Bartkienė, E., Lėlė, V., Steiblienė, V., & Adomaitienė, V. (2018) · Food Research International · doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2018.06.064 · Cited by 37
Psychosocial stress impairs health behavior in patients with mental disorders
Beutel, T., Zwerenz, R., & Michal, M. (2018) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-018-1956-8 · Cited by 39
“Some studies also reported findings to predominantly eat less in stress (so called “stress-undereaters”) or found no effect on eating behavior [41, 46, 47].”
BackgroundHoggard, L. S., Volpe, V. V., Thomas, A., Wallace, E., & Ellis, K. R. (2019) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-019-00044-1 · Cited by 36
“Notably, emotional eating has garnered empiric attention as a self-regulatory strategy that may improve mood by reducing anxiety via feedback to the HPA Axis (Jackson et al., 2010; Jackson & Knight, 2006; Macht, 2008; Pecoraro et al., 2004).”
BackgroundRestrained Eating and Vegan, Vegetarian and Omnivore Dietary Intakes
Brytek‐Matera, A. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12072133 · Cited by 40
“This model describes five way that explain how emotions affect eating: (1) emotions aroused by food stimuli affect food choice (emotions alter food choice through initiating cravings); (2) emotions high in arousal or intensity suppress eating (due to incompatible emotional responses); (3) emotions moderate in arousal…”
BackgroundMethodThe validity of the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire: some critical remarks
Domoff, S. E., Meers, M. R., Koball, A. M., & Musher‐Eizenman, D. R. (2013) · Eating and Weight Disorders - Studies on Anorexia Bulimia and Obesity · doi:10.1007/s40519-013-0087-y · Cited by 40
“Because this review is specific to examining the concurrent validity of self-reported emotional eating scales, we only included studies that met the following criteria: [1] measured self-reported emotional eating in adults (18 years and older) with either the DEBQ (emotional eating subscale), the TFEQ-R18 (versions 1…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMichels, N. (2019) · Nutrition Research Reviews · doi:10.1017/s0954422419000143 · Cited by 35
“The preferred foods are rich in sugar and fat and have been called ‘comfort food’ since eating functions as a way to cope with stress via distraction and reward feelings(16).”
BackgroundHoarding and eating pathology: the mediating role of emotion regulation
Raines, A. M., Boffa, J. W., Allan, N. P., Short, N. A., & Schmidt, N. B. (2015) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2014.11.005 · Cited by 35
“The negative effects of obesity are widereaching, from increased risk of physical disability [7], to poor emotion regulation [8], and poorer health- and mental-”
BackgroundThe dynamic network associations of food craving, restrained eating, hunger and negative emotions
Dicker‐Oren, S. D., Gelkopf, M., & Greene, T. (2022) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2022.106019 · Cited by 40
Mastinu, M., Melis, M., Yousaf, N. Y., Barbarossa, I. T., & Tepper, B. J. (2022) · Journal of Food Science · doi:10.1111/1750-3841.16300 · Cited by 41
Calcaterra, V., Rossi, V., Magenes, V. C., Baldassarre, P., Grazi, R., Loiodice, M., Fabiano, V., & Zuccotti, G. (2024) · Frontiers in Pediatrics · doi:10.3389/fped.2024.1368283 · Cited by 44
The Association between Physical Activity and Eating Self-Regulation in Overweight and Obese Women
Carraça, E. V., Silva, M. N., Coutinho, S. R., Vieira, P. N., Minderico, C. S., Sardinha, L. B., & Teixeira, P. J. (2013) · Obesity Facts · doi:10.1159/000356449 · Cited by 38
Pentikäinen, S. P., Arvola, A., Karhunen, L. J., & Pennanen, K. (2017) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2017.09.001 · Cited by 43
Lifestyle habits and depressive symptoms in Norwegian adolescents: a national cross-sectional study
Kleppang, A. L., Haugland, S. H., Bakken, A., & Stea, T. H. (2021) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-021-10846-1 · Cited by 35
“For example, emotions may influence eating behaviour both in terms of the choice of nutrition and volume consumed [62, 63].”
BackgroundSkolmowska, D., Głąbska, D., & Guzek, D. (2022) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu14040828 · Cited by 37
“Emotional eating is defined as the tendency to eat in response to negative emotions, while the food products chosen for eating are mostly energy-dense [1], and high in sugars and fat [2].”
BackgroundFactor structure of the Emotional Eating Scale in overweight and obese adults seeking treatment
Goldbacher, E. M., Grunwald, H. E., Lagrotte, C. A., Klotz, A. A., Oliver, T. L., Musliner, K. L., VanderVeur, S. S., & Foster, G. D. (2012) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2012.04.005 · Cited by 35
“Individuals high in emotional eating exhibit a pattern of responding to emotional distress with increased appetite and food intake, especially for sweet and high-fat foods (Konttinen, Mannisto, SarlioLahteenkorva, Silventoinen, & Haukkala, 2010; Macht, 2008; van Strien & Ouwens, 2003).”
BackgroundBarnhart, W. R., Kalantzis, M. A., Gaggiano, C. M., & Braden, A. L. (2024) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2024.107343 · Cited by 37
A developmental model of emotional eating
Chawner, L. R., & Filippetti, M. L. (2024) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2024.101133 · Cited by 45
Gender Differences in Dietary Patterns and Eating Behaviours in Individuals with Obesity
Feraco, A., Armani, A., Gorini, S., Camajani, E., Quattrini, C., Filardi, T., Karav, S., Strollo, R., Caprio, M., & Lombardo, M. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16234226 · Cited by 34
Neighborhood food environment role in modifying psychosocial stress–diet relationships
Zenk, S. N., Schulz, A. J., Izumi, B. T., Mentz, G. B., Israel, B. A., & Lockett, M. (2013) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2013.02.008 · Cited by 38
“…food consumption, soft drink consumption, and sweet energy-dense food intake (Beydoun et al., 2009; Crawford, Khedkar, Flaws, Sorkin, & Gallicchio, 2011; Elfhag, Tholin, & Rasmussen, 2008; Jeffery et al., 2009; Konttinen, Mannisto, Sarlio-Lahteenkorva, Silventoinen, & Haukkala, 2010; Macht, 2008).”
BackgroundThe influence of auditory and visual stimuli on the pleasantness of chocolate gelati
Kantono, K., Hamid, N., Shepherd, D., Lin, Y. H. T., Svetlana, Y., Yoo, M. J. Y., Grazioli, G., & Carr, B. T. (2016) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2016.05.008 · Cited by 34
Children's psychosocial stress and emotional eating: A role for leptin?
Michels, N., Sioen, I., Ruige, J. B., & Henauw, S. D. (2016) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.22593 · Cited by 34
“sweet drinks, jam, honey, sweet breakfast cereals, sweet snacks), (2) ‘fatty foods’ (i.”
BackgroundThe Effect of Hunger and Satiety on Mood-Related Food Craving
Reents, J., Seidel, A.-K., Wiesner, C. D., & Pedersen, A. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.568908 · Cited by 40
Bohon, C. (2014) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.20759 · Cited by 33
“While some studies report that most people tend to eat less in response to stress (11), others find that a majority eat more when stressed (12, 13).”
BackgroundResponse style and vulnerability to anger-induced eating in obese adults
Appelhans, B. M., Whited, M. C., Schneider, K. L., Oleski, J. L., & Pagoto, S. (2010) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2010.08.009 · Cited by 33
“Several functional associations between emotions and eating have been proposed (Macht, 2008), including the use of palatable food to regulate negative affect (Macht, 2008; Spring et al., 2008; Wallis & Hetherington, 2004).”
BackgroundInfluence of emotions evoked by life events on food choice
Aguiar-Bloemer, A. C., & Garcia, R. W. D. (2017) · Eating and Weight Disorders - Studies on Anorexia Bulimia and Obesity · doi:10.1007/s40519-017-0468-8 · Cited by 33
Relationship between emotional eating and coping with stress of nursing students
Ertem, M., & Karakaş, M. (2020) · Perspectives In Psychiatric Care · doi:10.1111/ppc.12599 · Cited by 33
Cross-Lagged Associations Between Children’s Stress and Adiposity
Michels, N., Sioen, I., Boone, L., Clays, E., Vanaelst, B., Huybrechts, I., & Henauw, S. D. (2015) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0000000000000122 · Cited by 33
“Some specificity in this relation has been suggested with eating being stimulated by mostly moderate, not very intense emotions and depending on the person’s characteristics, for example, their eating behavior (64).”
BackgroundLas Emociones y la Conducta Alimentaria
Fernández, E. P., & Martínez, L. M. R. (2015) · Acta de Investigación Psicológica · doi:10.1016/s2007-4719(16)30008-4 · Cited by 35
Contextual factors associated with eating in the absence of hunger among adults with obesity
Goldschmidt, A. B., Crosby, R., Cao, L., Pearson, C. M., Utzinger, L. M., Pacanowski, C., Mason, T. B., Berner, L. A., Engel, S., Wonderlich, S., et al. (2017) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2017.01.005 · Cited by 30
“It has been suggested that the naturally rewarding effects of food alleviate low mood via opioidergic, dopaminergic, and serotonergic mechanisms,(40) although some data suggest that acute stress mitigates the brain’s reward response to food cues.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Macht, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Würzburg (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Macht, Michael
- ORCID
- Macht, Michael
- Venue
- Appetite
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2008-01
- Volume
- 50
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-11
- ISSN
- 0195-6663 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2007130974
- Cited by
- 1,396
- References
- 156
- Citations by year
- 2026: 96 · 2025: 109 · 2024: 102 · 2023: 136 · 2022: 107 · 2021: 126 · 2020: 95 · 2019: 82 · 2018: 72 · 2017: 80 · 2016: 74 · 2015: 80 · 2014: 68 · 2013: 47 · 2012: 40
- FWCI
- 2.41
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Appetite (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Keywords
- eating behaviour, food choice, emotion regulation, emotional suppression, cognitive control, individual differences, emotion features
- MeSH terms
- Appetite Regulation, Eating, Emotions, Food, Food Preferences, Humans, Models, Biological
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