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How emotions affect eating: A five-way model
Abstract
Despite the importance of affective processes in eating behaviour, it remains difficult to predict how emotions affect eating. Emphasizing individual differences, previous research did not pay full attention to the twofold variability of emotion-induced changes of eating (variability across both individuals and emotions). By contrast, the present paper takes into account both individual characteristics and emotion features, and specifies five classes of emotion-induced changes of eating: (1) emotional control of food choice, (2) emotional suppression of food intake, (3) impairment of cognitive eating controls, (4) eating to regulate emotions, and (5) emotion-congruent modulation of eating. These classes are distinguished by antecedent conditions, eating responses and mediating mechanisms. They point to basic functional principles underlying the relations between emotions and biologically based motives: interference, concomitance and regulation. Thus, emotion-induced changes of eating can be a result of interference of eating by emotions, a by-product of emotions, and a consequence of regulatory processes (i.e., emotions may regulate eating, and eating may regulate emotions).
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“negative emotional eating is a heterogenous construct [1, 33, 34].”
From Mindfulness facets differentially relate to self-reported negative and positive emotional eating types in treatment-seeking adults with overweight/obesity (2023) · cites this paper as [33]
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“Furthermore, there is evidence that eating is affected differently by emotions of differing valence although relatively little is known about the effects of positive emotions on eating (Macht, 2008).”
From Emotional Appetite Questionnaire. Construct validity and relationship with BMI (2010) · cites this paper as Macht, 2008
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Bidirectional relationship of stress and affect with physical activity and healthy eating
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“On the other hand, well-defined stress like strong emotions might not stimulate or even lower the motivation to eat (Macht, 2008).”
InfluentialMeasuring emotional responses to foods and food names using questionnaires
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How Nutrition can help to fight against COVID-19 Pandemic
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Bennett, J. T., Greene, G. W., & Schwartz‐Barcott, D. (2012) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2012.09.023 · Cited by 237
“More research is needed to explore why emotions can increase food intake in certain eaters for instance, but decrease food intake in other groups (Macht, 2008).”
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“Moreover, individuals experiencing depressed mood show increased preference and consumption of ‘‘comfort foods’’ and report the use of these foods as a means by which to alleviate adverse feelings (Macht, 2008).”
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Internet pornography use and sexual motivation: a systematic review and integration
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“…while attempting to be more integrative than previous reviews that have focused only on one aspect of uncontrolled eating and did not consider the cross-talk between the measurement traditions (Bryant et al., 2008; Herman & Polivy, 2008; Macht, 2008; Pursey et al., 2014; Espel-Huynh et al., 2018).”
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“People make bad choices because of stimuli when they are excited, stressed, or hungry, and are in an environment surrounded by smells of high-calorie foods (Macht 2008; Oliver, Wardle, and Gibson 2000).”
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Vainik, U., Neseliler, S., Konstabel, K., Fellows, L. K., & Dagher, A. (2015) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2015.03.004 · Cited by 200
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BackgroundModeration of distress-induced eating by emotional eating scores
van Strien, T., Herman, C. P., Anschütz, D. J., Engels, R. C. M. E., & de Weerth, C. (2011) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2011.10.005 · Cited by 185
“It should be noted that the validity of the emotional eating scale for predicting emotional eating should not be considered in isolation from the emotional cues to which it is related (Macht, 2008).”
Perinatal Exposure to High-Fat Diet Programs Energy Balance, Metabolism and Behavior in Adulthood
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“Variations in mood also alter food choice, with increased preference for high-fat/high-sugar foods being reported during negative emotions [”
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Lagast, S., Gellynck, X., Schouteten, J. J., Herdt, V. D., & Steur, H. D. (2017) · Trends in Food Science & Technology · doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2017.09.006 · Cited by 191
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Elsweiler, D., Trattner, C., & Harvey, M. (2017) · International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR) · doi:10.1145/3077136.3080826 · Cited by 185
“For example, people make poor decisions when stimulated (e.g. when hungry and surrounded by the sights and smells of calorie rich food) [38] or when emotional [24] or stressed [26].”
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“Human studies showed that most subjects reported a preference for palatable food rich in fat and sugar during negative emotions (Macht, 2008).”
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“Furthermore, there is evidence that eating is affected differently by emotions of differing valence although relatively little is known about the effects of positive emotions on eating (Macht, 2008).”
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“Because emotions and mood states are known to influence responses to food and the motivation to eat (e.g., Macht, 2008), affect was assessed by means of the Positive Affect Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988), which consists of 10 items tapping positive affect (e.g.,…”
MethodWhite, B., Horwath, C. C., & Conner, T. S. (2013) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjhp.12021 · Cited by 198
“…studies have found that experimentally induced negative affect can trigger an increased consumption of high fat and sugar snacks (Greeno&Wing, 1994; Macht, 2008; O’Connor et al., 2008; Sieber, 2007), a preference for snacks over meals (Lowe & Fisher, 1983; Macht, 2008; O’Connor et al., 2008;…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialBoredom proneness and emotion regulation predict emotional eating
Crockett, A., Myhre, S. K., & Rokke, P. D. (2015) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105315573439 · Cited by 191
Eating and inflicting pain out of boredom
Havermans, R. C., Vancleef, L. M. G., Kalamatianos, A., & Nederkoorn, C. (2014) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2014.11.007 · Cited by 178
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Methodde Boer, A., Horst, G. J. T., & Lorist, M. M. (2012) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2012.08.002 · Cited by 183
Negative mood increases selective attention to food cues and subjective appetite
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“…mood on attentional bias to food cues is influenced by trait eating style, in particular, emotional eating, and also external and restrained eating (as these traits may moderate the effect of negative affect on eating behaviour, e.g., Conner et al., 1999; Macht, 2008; O’Connor et al., 2008).”
BackgroundFrankel, L. A., Hughes, S. O., O’Connor, T. M., Power, T. G., Fisher, J. O., & Hazen, N. L. (2012) · Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1155/2012/327259 · Cited by 165
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High-fat diet selectively protects against the effects of chronic social stress in the mouse
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“Moreover, it has been well described that the exposure to stress and the experiencing of negative emotions enhances the shift in food choice from healthier to comfort foods (Epel et al., 2001; Cartwright et al., 2003; Freeman and Gil, 2004; Adam and Epel, 2007; Macht, 2008; Konttinen et al., 2010a).”
The relationship between stress, dietary restraint, and food preferences in women
Habhab, S., Sheldon, J. P., & Loeb, R. C. (2008) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2008.12.006 · Cited by 159
“In addition, as suggested by Macht (2008), eating sweet foods may help one regulate negative emotions by creating positive affect that is incompatible with such negative feelings.”
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Shriver, L. H., Dollar, J. M., Calkins, S. D., Keane, S. P., Shanahan, L., & Wideman, L. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13010079 · Cited by 174
Eating when bored: Revision of the Emotional Eating Scale with a focus on boredom.
Koball, A. M., Meers, M. R., Storfer-Isser, A., Domoff, S. E., & Musher-Eizenman, D. R. (2012) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0025893 · Cited by 141
Pollak, J. P., Adams, P., & Gay, G. K. (2011) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/1978942.1979047 · Cited by 140
“First, PAM could be used in cases where researchers need to know about subjects’ affective states during certain events or decision making processes, such as linking affect to dietary choices [25], exercise behavior [7], lapses in substance abuse [14], or around traumatic events [34].”
BackgroundThe neurocognitive connection between physical activity and eating behaviour
Joseph, R. J., Alonso‐Alonso, M., Bond, D. S., Pascual‐Leone, Á., & Blackburn, G. L. (2011) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/j.1467-789x.2011.00893.x · Cited by 147
“Negative emotional states promote overeating by depleting the cognitive resources necessary to resist the temptation to over-eat (146).”
BackgroundBemanian, M., Mæland, S., Blomhoff, R., Rabben, Å. K., Arnesen, E., Skogen, J. C., & Fadnes, L. T. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18010130 · Cited by 137
“To many, stress and negative mood can induce loss of appetite and hypophagia [7,8].”
BackgroundGaraulet, M., Canteras, M., Morales, E., López‐Guimerà, G., Sánchez‐Carracedo, D., & Corbalán-Tutau, M. D. (2012) · PubMed · doi:10.1590/s0212-16112012000200043 · Cited by 135
“The exact process by which emotions affect eating behavior emerges as one of the central unanswered questions in the field of emotional eating.(19) It has been found empirical support that the influence of emotions on eating behavior is stronger in obese people than in non-obese and in dieters than in non-dieters.”
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy for weight control: Model, evidence, and future directions
Lillis, J., & Kendra, K. E. (2014) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2013.11.005 · Cited by 130
“Emotional or stress eating tends to function in part to reduce or change negative affect (Macht, 2008).”
BackgroundRooney, C., McKinley, M. C., & Woodside, J. V. (2013) · Proceedings of The Nutrition Society · doi:10.1017/s0029665113003388 · Cited by 130
“For example, depressed mood is associated with numerous behavioural and physiological responses, such as changes in appetite, sleeping patterns, motivation/energy levels and body-image perceptions, all of which have the potential to influence food choice and consumption((50,67,77,107)).”
BackgroundA comprehensive diagnostic approach to detect underlying causes of obesity in adults
van der Valk, E. S., van den Akker, E. L. T., Savas, M., Kleinendorst, L., Visser, J. A., van Haelst, M. M., Sharma, A. M., & van Rossum, E. F. C. (2019) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/obr.12836 · Cited by 138
“Some individuals may overeat as a coping strategy for other, psychological factors such as emotions.(18)Next, a decreased quantity or quality of sleep can induce weight gain.”
BackgroundPathological overeating: emerging evidence for a compulsivity construct
Moore, C. F., Sabino, V., Koob, G. F., & Cottone, P. (2017) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2016.269 · Cited by 126
“…with overeating in response to stress (Greeno and Wing, 1994; Heatherton et al, 1991), perhaps reflecting an attempt to self-soothe or self-medicate with ‘comfort’ foods (Macht, 2008; Tomiyama et al, 2011) as this eating can effectively dampen down the body’s stress response (Pecoraro et al, 2004).”
Food for love: the role of food offering in empathic emotion regulation
Hamburg, M. E., Finkenauer, C., & Schuengel, C. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00032 · Cited by 126
“An overview by Macht (2008) showed that food intake could also remain unaffected or decrease as a response to intense emotions or stress.”
BackgroundSultson, H., Kukk, K., & Akkermann, K. (2017) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2017.05.035 · Cited by 123
The effect of physical activity on weight loss is mediated by eating self-regulation
Andrade, A. M., Coutinho, S. R., Silva, M. N., Mata, J., Vieira, P. N., Minderico, C. S., Melanson, K. J., Baptista, F., Sardinha, L. B., & Teixeira, P. J. (2010) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2010.01.006 · Cited by 128
“Additionally, negative emotional states are known to affect eating behavior, for instance by depleting cognitive resources needed for habitual restraint [49].”
BackgroundAttachment Security and Obesity in US Preschool-Aged Children
Anderson, S. E., & Whitaker, R. C. (2011) · Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.292 · Cited by 116
Cornil, Y., & Chandon, P. (2013) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797613481232 · Cited by 116
“Other studies (e.g., Garg, Wansink, & Inman, 2007) have suggested that positive affect leads to healthy eating and negative affect to unhealthy eating, although these findings are robust only for restrained eaters (Macht, 1999, 2008).”
BackgroundThe effect of emotional state on taste perception
Noel, C. A., & Dando, R. (2015) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2015.06.003 · Cited by 114
“food, while negative emotions decrease food pleasantness (Macht, 2008; Willner & Healy, 1994).”
BackgroundJacob, A., Moullec, G., Lavoie, K., Laurin, C., Cowan, T., Tisshaw, C., Kazazian, C., Raddatz, C., & Bacon, S. (2018) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0000576 · Cited by 128
“Current literature suggests that emotional eating is related to binge eating, uncontrolled eating, and impaired cognitive restraint (Macht, 2008).”
BackgroundEmotional processing in obesity: a systematic review and exploratory meta‐analysis
Fernandes, J., Ferreira‐Santos, F., Miller, K., & Torres, S. (2017) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/obr.12607 · Cited by 126
“questionnaire, interview or experimental task) and (3) statistical data.”
BackgroundDevelopment and Preliminary Validation of the Salzburg Emotional Eating Scale
Meule, A., Reichenberger, J., & Blechert, J. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00088 · Cited by 100
“These differences might be attributable to different levels of bodily arousal that accompanies these emotions (Macht, 2008) and respective neuroendocrine changes (Torres and Nowson, 2007).”
BackgroundEmotions and Food Consumption: Emotional Eating Behavior in a European Population
Ljubičić, M., Sarić, M. M., Klarin, I., Rumbak, I., Barić, I. C., Ranilović, J., Dželalija, B., Sarić, A., Nakić, D., Djekic, I. V., et al. (2023) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods12040872 · Cited by 110
“Namely, “emotions may regulate eating, and eating may regulate emotions” [22].”
BackgroundResultEmotional eating in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa
Ricca, V., Castellini, G., Fioravanti, G., Sauro, C. L., Rotella, F., Ravaldi, C., Lazzeretti, L., & Faravelli, C. (2011) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2011.04.062 · Cited by 110
“The relationship between emotional states and eating behaviors is complex, and different studies showed that there is a significant variability across individuals about the emotion-induced changes of eating [1,2].”
BackgroundMignogna, C., Costanzo, S., Ghulam, A., Cerletti, C., Donati, M. B., de Gaetano, G., Iacoviello, L., & Bonaccio, M. (2021) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/advances/nmab130 · Cited by 112
“Moreover, boredom and feelings of anxiety, triggered by such an adverse scenario, could have impacted food choices, leading to irregular eating and more frequent snacking (6, 7).”
Overlapping Neural Endophenotypes in Addiction and Obesity
Michaud, A., Vainik, U., García‐García, I., & Dagher, A. (2017) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2017.00127 · Cited by 105
“Indeed, stress can be associated with both augmented and diminished appetite (205), with around 30% of the population experiencing increases in appetite, 48% appetite suppression, and the rest no change (212).”
BackgroundAres, G., Giménez, A., Vidal, L., Zhou, Y., Krystallis, A., Tsalis, G., Symoneaux, R., Cunha, L. M., de Moura, A. P., Claret, A., et al. (2016) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2016.03.014 · Cited by 105
Jacquier, C., Bonthoux, F., Baciu, M., & Ruffieux, B. (2012) · Nutrition Reviews · doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2011.00447.x · Cited by 102
Food and wellbeing. Towards a consumer-based approach
Ares, G., de Saldamando, L., Giménez, A., & Deliza, R. (2013) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2013.11.017 · Cited by 101
“Foods have been reported to have a strong influence on our emotions (Canetti, Bachar, & Berry, 2002; Macht, 2008) but it is not clear how these food-elicited emotions affect consumers’ evaluation of their subjective wellbeing.”
BackgroundNight eating is associated with emotional and external eating in college students
Nolan, L. J., & Geliebter, A. (2012) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2012.02.002 · Cited by 108
“Likewise, stress also can increase food consumption in emotional eaters (Macht, 2008).”
BackgroundEmotional and electrophysiological measures correlate to flavour perception in the presence of music
Kantono, K., Hamid, N., Shepherd, D., Lin, Y. H. T., Skiredj, S., & Carr, B. T. (2018) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.11.012 · Cited by 99
Metadata
- Authors
- Macht, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Würzburg (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Macht, Michael
- ORCID
- Macht, Michael
- Venue
- Appetite
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2008-01
- Volume
- 50
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-11
- ISSN
- 0195-6663 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2007130974
- Cited by
- 1,396
- References
- 156
- Citations by year
- 2026: 96 · 2025: 109 · 2024: 102 · 2023: 136 · 2022: 107 · 2021: 126 · 2020: 95 · 2019: 82 · 2018: 72 · 2017: 80 · 2016: 74 · 2015: 80 · 2014: 68 · 2013: 47 · 2012: 40
- FWCI
- 2.41
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Appetite (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Keywords
- eating behaviour, food choice, emotion regulation, emotional suppression, cognitive control, individual differences, emotion features
- MeSH terms
- Appetite Regulation, Eating, Emotions, Food, Food Preferences, Humans, Models, Biological
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