Cited by 1,396Eating Disorders and BehaviorsNutrition, Health and Food BehaviorRegulation of Appetite and Obesity

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How emotions affect eating: A five-way model

Macht, Michael·2008·Appetite

DOI 10.1016/j.appet.2007.07.002

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Abstract

Despite the importance of affective processes in eating behaviour, it remains difficult to predict how emotions affect eating. Emphasizing individual differences, previous research did not pay full attention to the twofold variability of emotion-induced changes of eating (variability across both individuals and emotions). By contrast, the present paper takes into account both individual characteristics and emotion features, and specifies five classes of emotion-induced changes of eating: (1) emotional control of food choice, (2) emotional suppression of food intake, (3) impairment of cognitive eating controls, (4) eating to regulate emotions, and (5) emotion-congruent modulation of eating. These classes are distinguished by antecedent conditions, eating responses and mediating mechanisms. They point to basic functional principles underlying the relations between emotions and biologically based motives: interference, concomitance and regulation. Thus, emotion-induced changes of eating can be a result of interference of eating by emotions, a by-product of emotions, and a consequence of regulatory processes (i.e., emotions may regulate eating, and eating may regulate emotions).

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Eating Behavior of Brazilian College Students: Influences of Lifestyle, Negative Affectivity, and Personal Characteristics
Martins, B. G., da Silva, W. R., Marôco, J. P., & Campos, J. Á. D. B. (2020) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.1177/0031512520983082 · Cited by 17
“, 2019; Polivy, 1996), under stressful situations, then these individuals may lose control over their attempts at restraint (Macht, 2008) and engage in episodes of uncontrolled eating and emotional eating, leading to weight gain (Canetti et al.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis attenuation and obesity risk in sexually abused females
Li, J. C., Hall, M. A., Shalev, I., Schreier, H. M. C., Zarzar, T. G., Marcovici, I., Putnam, F. W., & Noll, J. G. (2021) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2021.105254 · Cited by 17
Effects of Chemosignals from Sad Tears and Postprandial Plasma on Appetite and Food Intake in Humans
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“In this regard, mood or emotion is known to affect the motivation to eat, food choice, eating speed, and amount of food intake [13], which suggests the possibility that a pheromone or chemosignal secreted due to an emotion may modulate appetite or eating behavior.”
Background
Testing Emotional Eating Style in Relation to Willingness to Pay for Nutritional Claims
López‐Galán, B., & de‐Magistris, T. (2019) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu11081773 · Cited by 17
“variability of emotional intensity among individuals [20].”
Background
Sobrealimentación Inducida por la Ansiedad Parte I: Evidencia Conductual, Afectiva, Metabólica y Endocrina
Silva, J. R. (2007) · Terapia psicológica · doi:10.4067/s0718-48082007000200005 · Cited by 19
Understanding the relationship between negative emotional eating and binge eating: the moderating effects of acting with awareness and non-reactive mindfulness
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“Indeed, the initial conceptualization of emotional eating as measured by the Emotional Eating Scale was designed to tap into specific negative emotions that may be related to the urge to eat (Arnow et al., 1995), and specific negative emotions may be uniquely related eating behavior (Macht, 2008).”
Background
Atypical depression and emotion dysregulation: Clinical and psychopathological features
Fornaro, M., Caiazza, C., Pistone, L., Crincoli, W., Pezone, R., Prisco, M. D., Oliva, V., Cilmi, F., Tufano, G., Miola, A., et al. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.02.034 · Cited by 17
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“The affect regulation model posits that emotional eating is a learned behaviour aiming to downregulate negative emotional states through the consumption of foods and this behaviour is maintained over time through negative reinforcement [71,72].”
Healthy eating – a modifiable contributor to optimize healthy living in the COVID‐19 pandemic: a review
Chatterjee, P. K., Nirgude, A. S., & Chatterjee, P. K. (2021) · Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture · doi:10.1002/jsfa.11650 · Cited by 19
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Parental Perspectives of the Impact of COVID-19 Lockdown on Food-Related Behaviors: Systematic Review
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“Moreover, parents mad healthier choices as a result of not being t [ ], i l i g aking ore eals from scratch [25] and experimenting in the kitchen [27, 9].”
Background
The Relationship Between Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Levels and Eating Behavior in Emergency Service Workers
Erden, S. Ç., Yılmaz, B. K., Kozacı, N., Uygur, A. B., Yiğit, Y., Karakus, K., Aydın, İ. E., Ersahin, T., & Ersahin, D. A. (2023) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.35504 · Cited by 16
“Studies have reported that dietary restriction may be the most important predictor of overeating during stress [28].”
Background
Associations between subtypes of social withdrawal and emotional eating during emerging adulthood
Etkin, R. G., Bowker, J. C., & Scalco, M. D. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.03.059 · Cited by 16
“Theories of emotional eating posit that many individuals eat not due to hunger, but in an attempt to distract from, copewith, or regulate negative or threatening emotional states or experiences (Bruch, 1973; Heatherton & Baumeister, 1991; Macht, 2008).”
Background
Pathways of the relationships among eating behavior, stress, and coping in adults with type 2 diabetes: A cross-sectional study
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Comparison of explicit vs. implicit measurements in predicting food purchases
Kytö, E., Bult, J. H. F., Aarts, E., Wegman, J., Ruijschop, R. M. A. J., & Mustonen, S. (2019) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2019.103733 · Cited by 16
“On the other hand, food consumption can influence consumers’ mood and emotions (Canetti, Bachar, & Berry, 2002; Macht, 2008).”
Background
Improvements in Neighborhood Socioeconomic Conditions May Improve Resident Diet
Richardson, A. S., Collins, R. L., Ghosh‐Dastidar, B., Ye, F., Hunter, G., Baird, M., Schwartz, H. L., Sloan, J., Nugroho, A. K., Beckman, R., et al. (2020) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwaa220 · Cited by 16
Adverse Effect of Emotional Eating Developed During the COVID-19 Pandemic on Healthy Nutrition, a Vicious Circle: A cross-sectional descriptive study
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“Stressed people may eat increased amounts of unhealthy food rich in sugar or fat because eating is a way to cope with stress [22] and stress can influence reward and appetite pathways [7–10] that increase the intake of unhealthier food and that decrease the intake of healthier food items.”
Background
Emotion suppression, coping strategies, dietary patterns, and BMI
Herren, O. M., Agurs‐Collins, T., Dwyer, L. A., Perna, F. M., & Ferrer, R. A. (2021) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2021.101500 · Cited by 25
“Emotional eating and dietary patterns When ES is not effective in reducing negative emotions, individuals may engage in eating as a means of coping, even if they are not hungry (Haedt-Matt et al., 2014; Macht & Simons, 2000; Macht, 2008).”
Background
Caregivers’ Perceived Emotional and Feeding Responsiveness toward Preschool Children: Associations and Paths of Influence
Fernandes, C., Santos, A. F., Fernandes, M., dos Santos, A. J., Bost, K. K., & Veríssimo, M. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13041334 · Cited by 16
Influence of food taboos on nutritional patterns in rural communities in Cameroon
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The association between adverse life events and body weight change: results of a prospective cohort study
Proper, K. I., Picavet, H. S. J., Bogers, R. P., Verschuren, W. M. M., & Bemelmans, W. J. E. (2013) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-957 · Cited by 16
“Previous research has shown that adults perceiving stress or other psychological problems have lower levels of physical activity and higher caloric intake or intake of sweets [2,6,30,31].”
Background
Protracted Effects of Juvenile Stressor Exposure Are Mitigated by Access to Palatable Food
MacKay, J. C., James, J. S., Cayer, C., Kent, P., Anisman, H., & Merali, Z. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0096573 · Cited by 17
“as a means of coping with distress in humans [63,64], in the”
Background
Importance of emotional regulation in obesity and weight loss treatment
Silva, I. (2015) · Fractal Revista de Psicologia · doi:10.1590/1984-0292/1503 · Cited by 16
“The fact that, despite the recognition of the importance of affective processes in eating behaviour, we still know very little about how they predict eating, lead Macht (2008) to conduct an extensive literature review, in the attempt of constructing an explanatory model.”
Background
The Association between Dairy Intake, Simple Sugars and Body Mass Index with Expression and Extent of Anger in Female Students .
Kalantari, N., Doaei, S., Gordali, M., Rahimzadeh, G., & Gholamalizadeh, M. (2016) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 16
Is food desirability affected by social interaction?
Rizzato, M., Dio, C. D., Fasano, F., Gilli, G., Marchetti, A., & Sensidoni, A. (2016) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2016.02.005 · Cited by 18
Evaluation of a multiprofessional, nonsurgical obesity treatment program: which parameters indicated life style changes and weight loss?
Pjanic, I., Müller, R., Laimer, M. W., Hagenbuch, N., Laederach, K., & Stanga, Z. G. (2017) · Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1186/s40337-017-0144-4 · Cited by 16
“This fact can be explained by the concept of emotional eating [24, 25].”
Background
Relationship transitions and change in health behavior: A four-phase, twelve-year longitudinal study
Josefsson, K., Elovainio, M. J., Stenholm, S., Kawachi, I. I., Kauppi, M., Aalto, V., Mika Kivimaki, B., & Vahtera, J. (2018) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.03.006 · Cited by 21
The management of food cravings and thirst in hemodialysis patients: A qualitative study
Yu, J., Ng, H. J., Mooppil, N., & Griva, K. (2014) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105314525066 · Cited by 16
“While excessive negative emotions may undermine motivation and adherence by increasing cravings and subsequent food consumption (Macht, 2008), positive emotions such as pride can facilitate adherence (Katzir et al., 2010).”
Background
Mindful Eating, Body Weight, and Psychological Well-Being in Adolescence
Alan, B. E., Akdemir, D., Çetin, F. Ç., & Karahan, S. (2022) · Childhood Obesity · doi:10.1089/chi.2021.0121 · Cited by 15

Authors: Macht, M.
Affiliations: University of Würzburg (DE)
Corresponding author: Macht, Michael
ORCID: Macht, Michael
Venue: Appetite
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2008-01
Volume: 50
Issue: 1
Pages: 1-11
ISSN: 0195-6663 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2007.07.002
OpenAlex: W2007130974
Cited by: 1,396
References: 156
Citations by year: 2026: 96 · 2025: 109 · 2024: 102 · 2023: 136 · 2022: 107 · 2021: 126 · 2020: 95 · 2019: 82 · 2018: 72 · 2017: 80 · 2016: 74 · 2015: 80 · 2014: 68 · 2013: 47 · 2012: 40
FWCI: 2.41
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Appetite (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
Keywords: eating behaviour, food choice, emotion regulation, emotional suppression, cognitive control, individual differences, emotion features
MeSH terms: Appetite Regulation, Eating, Emotions, Food, Food Preferences, Humans, Models, Biological

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How emotions affect eating: A five-way model

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